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1869
THE LIBRARY

THE

NATURAL HISTOEY OF BIRDS.

f«

«•>■'

THH

lATDRAL HISTOEY OF BIRDS :

gl IpDDUlar IntroMidion to (i^nutbologij.

THOMAS RYMER JONES, F.ll.S.

PBOFESSOB OF IfATURAL HTSTOKY AND COMVAHATIVK ANATOMY IN
king's college, LONDON,

•UBLTSHF.D UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE COMMITTEE OF GENERAL LITERATURE

AND EDUCATION, APPOINTED BY THE SOCIETY FOK

PROMOTING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE.

yrkzi

r ■

m --if

LONDON :
SOCrl^TY FOR PROMOTING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE.

SOLD AT THE DEPOSITORIES :

77, GREAT QUEEX STREET, LINCOLN'S-IN-N FIELDS;

i, ROYAL EXCHANGE; 48, PICCADILLY;

AND BY ALL B!H>KSELLERS.

18G7.

f L- ^ ^

WYMAN AND SONS, PRINTERS,

GREAT QUEEN STREET, LINCOLN'S-INN FIELDS,

I^ONDON, W.l'.

TO

GEORGE ROBERT GRAY, E.R.S.,

TO WHOSE ZEALOUS LABOURS

ORNITHOLOGY IS SO DEEPLY INDEBTED,

THE FOLLOWING

POPULAR I^'TRODUCTIOX TO THE NATURAL HISTORY OF

BIRDS

IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED.

P E E F A C E.

1^1 HE Society for Promoting Cliristian Knowledge
being naturally desirous of promulgating as
extensively as possible sound information relative
to the works of Almighty God^ issued some time
ago a series of "Tabular Views/^ illustrative of tlie
modern Classification of Animals, containing- en-
graved figures of typical forms, representing tlie
families and sub-families composing the Animal
Creation.

These Tables, arranged by the highest autho-
rities in their respective departments, and illus-
trated by eminent artists, have however proved
insufficient for the purpose intended, inasmuch as
the history of the objects represented could only
be derived from extraneous sources, sometimes
not easily attainable by the general student.

To obviate this deficiency, the Society have re-
solved upon the publication of a series of volumes,
combining with the portraits of the animals de-
scriljed an account of the zoological characters

viii PREFACE.

whereby they are distinguished ; and also a concise
history of their habits and general importance in
Creation.

The present volume, containing the Natural
History of Birds, is based upon the Tabular View
arranged by George Eobert Gray, Esq., F.K.S.,
Director of the Ornithological department of the
British Museum, and is in conformity with the
classification adopted in our National Collection, to
the study of which it will be found a useful guide.

BIRDS

INTRODUCTION.*

THE feathered tribes, as they are emphatically
called, have at all times been favourite objects
of study to the naturalist. The beauty of their plu-
mage, the elegance of their forms, the gracefulness
of their movements, and above all, the cheerfulness
which everywhere surrounds them, tempt his obser-
vation, and impart to the thinking mind no small
share of that exuberant happiness expressed by the
gaiety of their demeanour and the chorus of their
song.

Inhabitants of the air, lightness and activity are
the characteristic features of their economy. Some,
borne on rapid wing, skim onwards like the meteor^s
flight, and are by far the swiftest of the animal
creation. Some soar aloft, till, lost to human vision,
only their voice is heard like music from the sky.
Others frequent the woods, making the trees their
residence, where, as they hop from spray to spray,
they pour forth streams of melody ; or gorgeously
attuned, glancing like fairy visions in the sunny land-
scape, seem the very gems and ornaments of Nature^s
lovely dress.

Races of stronger wing and sterner attributes
obtain their food by waging active war on living
animals, their destined prey, swooping upon their
quarry from afar like falling thunderbolts ; or else by
night, prowling on muffled wings, invade the dark-

* See " Animal Creation." page 407.
B

Z INTRODUCTION.

iiess, and approacli stealthily their unsuspecting
victims. By tar the greater number of birds, how-
ever, have been appointed, in one way or another,
to feed on insects that abound on every side, and
which, without such check, would, from their undue
increase, become seriously detrimental. Some catch
them on the wing. The Swallows and the Swifts,
from early morning till the close of day, ply their
untiring pinions in pursuit of such as fly abroad
by daylight ; and wdien evening come«, only give
up the chase to kindred species, that prefer the
gloom of twilight or the silence of the night.

Nor do they live on winged insects only ; but in
all the stages of their growth, the insect hosts are
the appointed food of numerous tribes of birds,
adapted by their structure to obtain such prey
wherever met wdth : on the ground, beneath the
bark of trees, ' in every hole and crevice where they
lurk, their presence is detected. From the upturned
soil, thousands of beaks are ready to pick out the
wingless grubs ; and prying eyes investigate each
leaf of every tree, in search of caterpillars and the
hungry bands of similar destroyers.

Fed on more dainty fare, the Humming-birds and
Soui-mangas, with their slender bills, explore the
blossoms of a thousand plants, in search of honied
stores, sipping the nectar and the dew from flow^er-
bells beauteous as themselves. Some feed on fruits,
and in the sunny climes find a perpetual autumn, or
devour the seeds of grasses, and, unasked, approach
the harvest-field to share the abundant corn. Ter-
restrial in their habits, not a few scrape from the
ground their vegetable food ; while many, raised on
stilted legs, wade in the marsh, and probe the oozy soil
in search of worms or slugs. Nor are the lakes, the
rivers, or the sea without their feathered occupants;
legions of water-fowl are everywhere provided.
Ducks paddle in the ponds. Swans row their " oary
state," reflected on the tranquil bosom of the stream ;
multitudes frequent the shore, crow^ding the rocks.

INTRODUCTION. 3

or riding on the waves ; while far away at sea,
upborne on outstretched wings, the Albatrosses
sweep along over degrees of longitude, and circle
round the globe itself, in the unbounded freedom
of their flight.

Presenting so much variety in their occupations
and mode of life, it may naturally be supposed that
a corresponding diversity exists in the structure of
their limbs, and in their means of procuring their
subsistence. The feet and claws of a perching bird
could never be available for swimming, nor could
the bill of a Snipe be used for the same purposes as
the beak of an Eagle. In the classification of birds,
therefore, the ornithologist is guided by certain
characters, derived from their general shape and
proportions, the structure of the mouth, bill, tongue,
wings, tail, and legs, all of which are necessarily in
relation with particular habits ; and his constant
endeavour is to detect and define, with brevity and
precision, the most prominent features whereby
different races are distinguishable.

In order to render such descriptions intelligible
to the general reader, it will be necessary, not only
to map out, as it were, the several parts that charac-
terize the objects of our study, but to employ words
and phrases of distinct and limited meaning, as
expressions of the peculiarities they exhibit ; we
need, therefore, scarcely apologize for introducing
our subject by a few preliminary remarks relative
to the nomenclature adopted in the following pages.

The Head of a bird consists of the slmll, and the
hill or healx, and is joined to the body by the ^lech.

The Beak or Bill consists of an upper jaw, called
in ornithological language the TJp]jer MandAhle (Fig.
1, 12)^ and of the lower jaw, or Lower Mandible (13).

The Upper Mandible contains the orifices of the
nostrils (c), the shape of which varies in diff'erent
birds. Its highest part is called the Culmen (t),
while the corresponding ridge of the lower mandible
is termed the Gonys (h).

INTRODUCTION.

Fig. 1. — FiGUEE OF a bird, showing its technical divisions.

A, Dorsal region : 12, upper mandible; a, the apex; i, the eulmen ; c, the
nostrils. G', The Head: d, the forehead; e, thevertex;/, the occiput. E, The
Nape ; comprehending, u, the upper neck ; v, the lower neck, C, The Back
IV, the interscapular space ; y, the back proper ; z, the rump. K, The Tail
B, The Ventral region : comprising, 13, the lower mandible ; g, the apex
h, the gonys. II, The Throat : s, the throat proper ; r, the jugulum. JT, The
Breast. D, The Abdomen : divided into o, the epigastrium. P, The Belly
q, the crissum, or vent. The Neck (I) comprehends the whole region between
the head and the trunk. The head is further divided into (w) the ophthalmic
region, (/) the supraciliary region, (k) the cheek, (w) the parotid region,
and (J) the Icrum. The Sides or Flanks (F) are those parts covered by the
wings when closed.

The feathers which cover or which form the Avings are distinguished into
Tecfriees, or wing-coverts; Hemiges, or quill-feathers; and thumb-feathers (2),
the last of which constitute the " bastard wing." The Tec-trices are divided
into the small wing-coverts (1), the middle wing-coverts (l"), and the large
wing-coverts (l")„ The Remiges are called primaries (3), or secondaries (3'J.
The wing itself is divided into the shoulder (4), and the ell>ow (5).

The legs, at their junction with the tarsus (fi), form the heel. The tarsus
may be distinguished into a hinder portion (7), and an anterior portion (8).

The foot is divisible into the thimib, or hallux (9), and the toes (10), which
are terminated by the claws (11).

INTRODUCTION. O

The Margins of the mandibles are tlieir lateral
edges, wMcli meet when the bill is closed. In some
birds the margins of the npper mandible overlap
those of the lower, while in others the two edges
exactly meet ; the line thus formed by the meeting
of the mandibles is termed the Commissure.

The commissure may be either straigld, as in the
Woodpecker ; festooned, as in the Sparrow-hawk ;
undulated, as in the Tanager; arched, as in the
Hoopoe; or angidated at its base, as in the Starling.

The Upper Mandible is sometimes continued over
the forehead, so as to form a sort of helmet. In
rapacious birds and Parrots its base is covered with
a soft skin called the Gere.

The Wing of a bird is constructed upon the same
general plan as the human arm, or the fore-leg of
quadrupeds, and when denuded of its feathers, it is
not difficult to perceive the relationship between
these apparently different organs.

The Quill-Feathers of the wing are di\4ded into
three sets, distinguished as the primaries, the
secondaries, and the tertiaries.

The Primaries are always the longest, and in
swift-flying bu'ds, like the Swallows, are of double
the length of any of the other quills : they are usually
nine or ten in number, sometimes eleven, and are
attached to the metacarpus, or those bones which
represent the hand of the human skeleton (3).

The Secondaries are implanted in the cubit or
fore-arm, and are usually only half the length of
the primaries (3*).

The Tertiaries are those attached to the upper
arm, or humerus.

The origins of the quills are overlapped, and pro-
tected -by smaller feathers, arranged something like
the tiles of a house, and called the Wing-Coverts

(1 r 1").

The power of flight possessed by any bird depends

upon the arrangement, the proportionate size, and

. the shape of the wings : hence it will be necessary

B 2

6

INTRODUCTION.

to explain the principal modifications observable in
these admirable structures.

Fig. 2.— figure of wing, showing the origins of the quill-feathers.

(h) The humerus ; (r) the radius ; (e) the cubital bone, the outer side of
which is entirely occupied by the insertion of the secondary quiUs (S), which
are separated by a small space from the primaries (P), all of which take
their origin from the metacarpal bone representing the hand. The joint
(x) representing the wrist-joint, indicates the point of separation between
the primary and the secondary quills. The bastard quills, or those attached
to the thumb, are indicated by the letter b.

The formation of the wing in reference to its
office depends almost entirely upon the arrange-
mentj the proportions, and the shape of the quills ;
and these again determine the powers of flight.

The principal modifications in the structure of
these important organs are therefore briefly ex-
pressed by simple epithets, the precise meaning of
which it will be necessary to remember.

In regard to their comparative length, a wiug,
however otherwise constructed, is termed long when

mTRODUCTION.

it extends beyond the middle of tlie tail ; moderate,
when it reaches nearly or quite to that member;
and s//or^ when it does not extend to the base of
the tail.

As relates to their shape —

Acuminated wings are those adapted for the most
rapid and long-continued flight. In wings of this
description the first quill is generally the longest,
although it sometimes happens that there is scarcely
any perceptible difference between that and the

Fig. 3.— acuminated wing.— swallow.

second ; the rest, however, rapidly diminish at
almost equal intervals, until they reach the lesser
quills, which are little more than one-third the
length of the exterior primaries.

It is obvious that in wings of this description
nearly the whole power of the stroke is thrown intc^
the primary quills, which are those principally em-
ployed in flight.

Falcated or Sword-shaped wings are only pos-
sessed by the Humming-birds. In these, the two

Fig, i. — FALCATED WING OF HUilMING-BIKD.

or three primaries are curved towards the ends,
which are rather suddenly rounded off", while all the
succeeding ones are straight.

Pointed wings come nearest to those termed acn-
mincdecl, and the passage from one of these forms
to the other is susceptible of numerous gradations,
almost too refined for popular explanation.

6 INTRODUCTION.

Pointed wings may be divided into two sorts.
In tlie firsts tlie outermost quill is either the longest,
or nearly' equal to the next one or two; but the
secondaries and tertiaries are of the ordinary length ;
that is, they are two-thirds as long as the primaries.

In the second description of pointed wing the
first quill is little more than half the length of those
which are longest, which are generally the fourth or
fifth.

Emarginated wings are characterized Iw having a
sudden notch, or sinuosity more or less abrupt, on
the margin of the inner shaft of the longest quills ;

- — ^.W-^y. ////^

EMARGIIfATEB WINGS.

h. Sparrow-hawk.

this notch, in some cases (True Falcons), is situated
near the end of the shaft; in others (the ignoble
Hawks) it is placed near the base (Fig. 5).

Rounded wings are always short, and there is so
little difi'erence between the last six or seven prima-
ries and the secondaries, that the distinction.between
the two series is scarcely perceptible. The tertiaries
also are nearly of the same dimensions, so that when
the wing is fully expanded, the contour forms a
semicircle.

Easorial wings are characterized by their peculiar
shape, and by the great development of the se-
condary quills ; these latter being so long as nearly
to equal the primaries. The primary quills in their
substance have an unusual strength and rigidity ;
their shape is almost falcate, and they are very
narrow; their curved shape gives to the mug a
great degree of convexity, and also indicates much
strength. -

INTRODUCTION.

Ample wings have tlie primaries short, and the
secondaries and tertiaries remarkably broad. The
flight of birds possessing wings of this description
is slow and heavy, but regular, lofty, and can be
long sustained. By this broad expanse of \^^ng the
Heron mounts high in the air, flying steadily, but
slowly, to its distant retreat.

Aboetive wings are such as are incapable of being
used as instruments of flight. These are of two
kinds ; the first belongs to land birds of the Ostrich
race, the second to the Penguins, Auks, and other
swimming birds.

The tail of a bird is a very important auxiliary in
flight, during which it is expanded, and used as a
rudder. There are very few species without this

Fig.

-TAIL-FEATHERS.

Upper surface of the tail of a bird,
showing the disposition of the twelve
quill- feathers of which it is usually
composed. The feathers of the tail
are counted from the outer to the
inner ; consequently the first tail-
feather (1) is the most external, from
which they are named 2nd, 3rd, 4th,
and £th, to the 6tb, or middle feathers
of the tail (6). The feathers which
cover the roots of the tail-feathers
are the tail-coverts [t t).

ornamental appendage, though in some it is ex-
tremely short. The terms short and long, however,
being very indefinite, it is usual, when speaking of
the comparative length of this part, to call that a
short tail which does not exceed half the lensth of

10 INTRODUCTION.

the wings ; a moderate tail is about equal to the
length of the body; and all longer than this are
called long tails.

A Perfect tail consists of twelve feathers ; but in
some Gallinaceous birds the number amounts to
eighteen ; while in a very few species there are
only eight.

The root or base of the tail-feathers is protected
both above and below by others^ which are termed
the upper and under tail- coverts.

In speaking of the various forms of the tail^ it
will be necessary in the following pages to make use
of terms, such as even, rounded, J an -shaped, gradu-
ated, cuneated, arcuated, spatidate, slender, forked,
&c. : these we will briefly explain.

An Even Tail implies that the feathers when ex-
panded are all of the same length.

A Rounded Tail has the outermost feathers pro-
gressively shorter than those in the middle.

A Fan- SHAPED Tail, as its name indicates, is so
much rounded, that the two middle feathers are the
longest, all the others gradually diminishing in
length.

GrRADUATED Tails not Only exhibit a greater degree
of circularity than those which are simply rounded,
but they possess this peculiarity, that the external
feathers, instead of being very slightly shorter than
those in the middle, are abruptly abbreviated, so as
to resemble the steps in a flight of stairs.

A CuNEATED or Wedge-shaped Tail has each fea-
ther gradually narrowed from the middle, and ter-
minating in a point.

Arcuated or Arched Tails somewhat resemble
the last ; but the feathers, instead of being straight,
are gently arched ; and those in the ■ middle are so
convex, that they lap over, as if to protect the
others. The common Pheasant exhibits this form
in perfection.

Spatulate or Racket-shaped Tails. — The pecu-
liaritv of this tail is that the middle feathers have

INTRODUCTION. 11

their shafts^ for a certain space towards tlieir ends,
entirely destitute of webs on either side j the webs
suddenly appearing again only at the top, giving the
feather the appearance of a spoon or battledore.

Slender Tails are generally of moderate length,
the feathers being slender throughout, and some-
times so abruptly truncated, that their extremities
appear to be cut off.

In Forked Tails the two outer feathers are by far
the longest ; the inner ones gradually shortening
until the gradation terminates in the central pair.

In Lyre-shaped Tajls the gradation in the length
of the feathers is precisely similar to that in a simply
forked tail, but they are curved outwards, so as to
resemble in some sort the frame of an ancient lyre.

Boat-shaped Tails are still more extraordinary;
their sides, when expanded, are bent up like the
sides of a boat, so as to leave the central part hollow
and very concave. This appearance is generally lost
in preserved specimens.

Compressed or Erect Tails are well exemplified
in that of the barn-door cock.

Lastly, Fasciculated or Plumed Tails are those
in which the feathers seem to have no regular or de-
terminate arrangement, but form bunches of plumes,
like that of the Ostrich.

The hinder limb or Leg of a bird is composed
of, — 1. the tibia, generally but erroneously called
the thigh; 2. the tarsus, or shank, usually deno-
minated the leg; and 3. the toes or digits. Of
these last, one, which when present is usually turned
backward, or in opposition to the rest, is distin-
guished as the hallux. The toes are all of them
terminated by claws, variable in their size and shape,
and of great importance in the classification of
different races.

The Tarsus by which name we shall designate the
shank, is either feathered, as in many of the birds of
prey (Fig. 7), or naked, as in the generality of birds.

A Naked tarsus is protected by Scales {scutel-

1 2 INTRODUCTION.

latcd); and next to the relative length of the tarsus,
the form and disposition of these scales supply us
with the best discriminative characters taken from
this part of the bird. The generality of naked-
footed birds have the tarsus protected by three
series of scales, each of which is frequently of a
peculiar form. The first series is in front, the second
occupy the two sides, and the third is at the back
of the leg.

T\ie front scales, caWed also the anterior, are either
composed of one or several pieces. When the ante-
rior scale is simple, or composed of one piece, it
extends from the front of the knee as far as the
hinder toe, and its external surface is quite smooth.
Generally, however, this front plate is marked by
transverse divisions, or composed of pieces, which
sometimes overlap each other. In many birds, both
the front and sides of the tarsus are covered with
numerous small scales that do not touch each other,
but are so disposed that the interstices, or spaces
between them, resemble the lines of a net : such a
tarsus is said to be reticidated.

The lateral scales of the tarsus are not alwaj^s
present; frequently their office is supplied by the
anterior scales, which are then extended round the
leg, so as nearly to envelop it.

The posterior scales are very frequently wanting,
and when present seldom extend much below the
upper part of the tarsus.

The Toes of birds, by their leading variations,
furnish the primary characters whereby the whole
class is divided into orders, and the subordinate
modifications of their structure indicate for the
most part natural groups.

The great majority have four toes on each foot,
three of which are usually placed before, and one
(the liallux) behind. The exceptions to this number
of toes and to their disposition are comparatively
few. They will be noticed when speaking of the
particular races in which they exist.

BIRDS

ORDER I.

AcciPiTKES* [LiiinchUf<) .

Birds of Prey.

The Birds of Prey hold the same position among
the feathered tribes as the Lion, the Tiger ;, the
Hy^na, and other carnivorous races among mam-
miferous quadrupeds. They Kve upon flesh, and
for the most part, pursue and destroy the animals
that constitute their food. Their flight is therefore
powerful, and the weapons with which they are
armed of a most formidable character. Their beak
is strong, sharp, and curved downwards towards the
tip, and their feet are furnished with hooked talons
well adapted to pierce and secure their struggling
quarry. The muscles of their thighs and the
strength of their legs indicate the power of their
claws, while the length and expanse of their wings
testify to the velocity of their flight. Their general
appearance is indicative of the ferocity of their
nature, and their whole life is devoted to carnage
and rapine. The Raptorial Birds are divisible into
two sections, — those that fly only in the daytime,
and those that are nocturnal in their habits. To the
first of these divisions belong the Eagles, the Vul-
tures, and the Falcons, distinguished by having

* Accipiter, a hawk, from accipio, to take by force.

C

14 ACCIPITRES.

their eyes placed upon tlie sides of their head^ so
that they can see in every direction ; while in the
nocturnal Birds of Prey both the eyes are directed
forw'ards.

SUB-OBDER.

ACCIPITRES DiURNI.*

Diurnal Birds of Prey.

In addition to the lateral position of the eyes
referred to above, the diurnal birds of prey are
recognisable by having the base of their beak
covered with a soft skin, called, from its wax-like
appearance, the " cei^e/' in which the orifices of the
nostrils are generally situated. Their feet are fur-
nished with three toes in front and one behind; all
quite destitute of feathers ; their plumage is close -
set, their Tvdngs strong, and their flight rapid.
They form two great groups, the first embracing
those that feed principally on animals killed by
themselves, the second including such as live more
or less upon carrion. The former were classed by
Linnaeus under the general name of Falcons, the
latter, constituting an equally natural group, em-
braces the Vultures, those unclean birds that must
first occupy our attention as constituting the type
of the rapacious order to which they belong. t

* Diurnus, belonging to the day.

t It may seem strange to the unscientific reader that these
ignoble birds should be selected as the type or pattern of the
rapacious tribes,' in preference to the more highly gifted Eagles
and Hawks ; aud it may therefore be necessary to explain in this
place what is the exact meaning attached to the words " type,"
" typical form," and " typical species," which will occur so fre-
quently in the following pages. The type of any given tribe or
family of Birds is by no means that genus or species which is the
most remarkably endowed with any particular faculty or attribute,
but, on the contrary, is selected rather from its want of any extra-
ordinary or exaggerated development of the peculiarities charac-

VULTURID.E. 15

FAMILY I.

YuLTURiD^. The Vultures.

Geneeal Chakactehistics. — Beak somewhat lengthened; upper mandible
nearly straight, curved at the point only ; head and neck in a greater or less
de'gree naked, or clothed only with a thin down ; talons comparatively weak.
Food exclusively the flesh of dead animals.

The birds belonging to tliis widely distributed
family present considerable diversity in their habits,
as well as in their general conformation. Some
differ from the rest of the vulturine race, by having
their head and neck completely clothed with feathers;
thus combining, to a certain extent, the habits of
the Vulture with the garb of the Eagle. The
American Vultures are remarkable for the posses-
sion of fleshy appendages, that surmount the base
of their beak, and give a very distinctive character
to their physiognomy. It is to the true Vultures
only — the types of the family — that the above
general description is strictly applicable ; from which
the rest are more or less aberrant.

Equally diversified are their modes of life. In

teristic of the group which it typifies. If, for example, the zoologist
is asked to select a species which shall be the type or exemplar of
Birds generally, he will, in all probability, point to the Crow, as
possessing in a medium degree of perfection the qualities belonging
to all races of Birds concentrated in itself. It is true that it
cannot soar so high as the Eagle, or fly with the swiftness of the
Swallow ; but it can fly very well, and with moderate rapidity. It
does not run with the fleetness of an Ostrich, or hop with the
vivacity of many of the smaller birds ; but it can both walk and hop,
when it thinks proper, with considerable alacrity. It is not a
wading bird, but it has no objection to wade into the water either
of the marsh or of the sea-shore, in search of food. It is equally at
home when perched upon a tree, and feeds indiscriaiinately upon
all sorts of substances, whether animal or vegetable; thus com-
bining the characteristics of all the feathered races.

In the same way the Vulture is selected as the type of the
Rapacious Birds. It is not the monarch of the sky, but its powers
of flight are very respectable ; and although it is too weak to do
battle with animals possessed of much strength, it will never-
theless kill and devour such feeble game as its cowardice permits
it to attack.

c 2

1()

ACCIPITRES.

hot climates they are more frequently seen upon
plains than in elevated situations ; sometimes they
approach villages, and at early dawn spread them-
selves through the streets and lanes, rendering much
service by devouring all kinds of carrion. In
temperate climates they only frequent the highest
mountains and most inaccessible cliffs, where some
of them prefer killing their own game. Such dif-
ferences, both in their appearance and mode of life,
have rendered it expedient to divide them into
several Sub-families, each distinguished from the
rest by certain characteristic peculiarities. Thus
we have the Bearded Vultures {GypaiJtince), the
Condors [Sarcoramfliince), the Vultures proper
{VuUiirincB), and the Eagle-Vultures (Gypoltwra-.
cince), each of which will require separate notice.

hi

M 1 1 ' /

IG. 7.— FOOT OF EAGLE.

VULTURID.E.

SUB-FAMILY I.
Gypaetin.e.'"' The Bearded Vuliure.s.

Gen. Charac— Head and neck completely clothed with feathers ; cereoftht
base of the upper mandible entirely hidden by projecting bristles.

Fig. S.— the lammer geyer.
(Gypuetos harhatus )

The type of this siib-faniily —

The Bearded Vulture {Gypaetos-\- harhatus), well known
on the continent of Europe as the Lammer Geyer, or
Lamb Vulture, is the largest of the birds of prey found

* Tt will be observed, that wliile the Families of Birds are desig-
nated by the Greek patronymic idiv, the Sub-families are distin-
guished by the diminutive ino;.

t yv-^, gyps, a vulture ; diToc, aetos, an eagle; Eagle-Vulture.

18 ACCIPITKES.

in the Eastern hemisphere. Its usual mode of killing
the animals that constitute its food is to drive them
over the edge of some precipitous cliff, and devour their
remains when shattered by the fall : hence it was
known to tlie ancients under the name of the "bone-
l^reaker " (ossifraga). From the descriptions given of
this formidable bird, it is not to be wondered at that
much exaggeration has crept into its history. Fourteen,
and even eighteen, feet in the extent of its wings have
been ' attributed to the Lammer Geyer, and an amount of
strength corresf)ondent with such Roc-like dimensions.
A distinguished naturalist, however, Picot la Perouse,
who has observed this species in the Pyrenees, and de-
scribed it very carefully, considerably reduces the magni-
tude attributed to it by earlier writers. He gives it the
folloAving dimensions : — Extent across the wings, eight
feet and a half ; total length, three feet ten inches ;
weight, about ten pounds. The beak is four inches long ;
it is covered above at its base as far as the centre with
numerous long black hairs directed forwards, while
underneath hangs a tuft of similar haii-s forming a true
beard an inch and a half in length : it is from this last
extraordinary appendage that its specific name, barbatus,
bearded, is derived. As may easily be imagined, a bird
of such proportions, and possessing an appetite corre-
spondent with its size, is terribly destiiictive to the flocks
that pasture in the Al})ine valleys, where it wages ciaiel
war on sheep, lambs, she-goats, and even calves ; while
the chamois, the hare, the marmot, and other wild qua-
drupeds, also become its victims ; even children,* occa-
sionally, have been the objects of the indiscriminating
ra^^acity of these marauders ; and man himself is iiot safe
should he incautiously approach their wild retreats.

The nest of the Lammer Geyer is usually built on the
most inaccessible heights, and constructed of larch-
branches intertwined with wool, hair, and feathers ; its
surface is flat, and its superficies about four feet in dia-
meter. Upon this nest, or rather platform, the female
deposits two or three eggs of a bluish- white colour, spotted
with reddish-brown or ochreous yellow.

* In 1819 these birds were numerous in Saxe Gotha. They
killed two children, and Government was induced to offer a reward
for their destruction.

VULTURID.E.

19

SUB-FAMILY II.
Sarcoramphin.e.""

The Condor.

Ges. Chaeac. — Bill lengthened and rather slender, with the basal portion
more or less covered with a sofit cere ; the apical part strong, much curved,
and acutely hooked at the tip ; nostrils placed in the cere, with the opening
large, exposed, oblong, and longitudinal ; wings lengthened and pointed ;
tarsi long, and covered with small reticulated scales ; the middle toe length-
ened, the lateral ones short, equal, and united with the middle toe bj a
membrane ; hind toe generally short and weak.

Fig. 9.— the condok.
{Sarcoramphus Gryphus.)

The sub -family of the Condors embraces birds
met witb in countries very remote from each other,
and differing much in size ; but agreeing in their
appetite for carrion. Some of them (Neophron) are
found in Africa and India, where they live in large
flocks, and in Egypt, where they are held in great
respect, on account of the services they render to
the country by purifying it from the garbage upon

* nap^, aapKOQ, ssirx, sarcos, flesh ; pcifitpog, ramphos, a crooked
beak.

20 ACCIPITRES.

which they feed. Others (CafJiartcs) are migrator}-,
and are found scattered over the various parts of
the American continent, the West Indies, and the
Falkland Islands, where they' may be often seen at
a great height, wheeling round and round, and per-
forming the most graceful evolutions. Here, like-
wise, they devour dead carcases, and every kind of
filth, during the hot season ; while those that inhabit
the sea-coasts and islands, subsist on dead seals and
various kinds of refuse, cast up by the waves :
small animals, how^ever, and eggs, more especially
those of alligators, also form- a portion of their food.

The typical species, and the giant of the race, is —

The Condor {Sarcoramj)hus Gryj^hus)^" generally re-
garded as the largest of predaceoiis birds. The name
Sarcoramphus is derived from the circnmstance that the
head of the male, in addition to a broad fleshy crest,
which extends over the top of its head, has another
beneath its beak, somewhat resembling tlie wattles of tlie
barn-door fowl. The nostrils are pierced completely
through the fleshy cere from side to side ; the skm of the
head and neck is quite naked, and thrown into voluminous
folds, while round the base of the neck is a frill of white
feathers.

The Condor has been rendered celebrated by exagge-
rated accounts of its size and ferocity. It is, in reality,
not much larger than the Lammer Geyer of Euroj^e,
which it also resembles in its habits. It frequents the
highest mountains of the Cordilleras of the Andes, in
South America. Of all birds its flight is the most lofty ;
and even the situation tliat it chooses for its breeding-
place varies from 10,000 to 15,000 feet above the level of
the sea. These birds generally live in pans ; but among
the inland basaltic clifl>^ of Santa Cruz they sometimes
collect together in great numbers ; and it is a grand spec-
tacle to see twenty or thirty of them start heavily from
their resting-places and wheel away in majestic cncles.
So aerial and buoyant is their flight, that except when
rising from the ground they are scarcely ever observed to
move their wings.

* Gryplius, a griffin, from ypv-iroc;, grypos, having a lioolied beak.

VULTURID.E.

21

The Condor feeds upon dead and putrefying carcases,
l)Ut two or more will sometimes unite to overpower the
llama and other large animals. They will even attack
a heifer ; they pursue it for a long time, wounding it with
their beak and talons until the poor animal sinks to the
ground l^reathless and overwhelmed with fatigue.

The female Condor makes no nest, but lays her eggs
upon the bare rock, simply selecting a spot where there
are cavities large enough to prevent them from rolling-
down when she descends upon or rises from them. The
situations chosen for incubation are always nearly inac-
cessible. The eggs are white, and are said to be usually
two in numljer.

22

ACCIPITRES.

SUB-FAMILY III.

VULTURIN.E.

The Vultures proper.

Gen. Charac— Bill long, strong, more elevated than broad, the sides more or
less compressed, the base covered with a cere for nearly half the length of
the bill, and the tip suddenly hooked over the lower mandil)le ; nostrils
placed in the cere, with their openings oblique and exposed ; wings length-
ened ; tarsi covered with small scales ; the middle toe longer than the tarsi,
while the lateral toes are much shorter.

Fig. 10. — THE ARABIAN VILTUEE.

{Vultur monachus.)

This sub-family compreliends a number of large
birds peculiar to tlie warmer parts of the Old World.

VULTUEID^. 23

They speedily collect in troops around the body of
any dead animal, on which they glut themselves
until they are incapable of moving : they will, how-
ever, sometimes attack living prey. Their flight is
slow ; but they are capable of mounting to a con-
siderable height, by means of a series of circular
evolutions, which serve them, not only in ascending,
but in descending. Their nest is slightly formed of
sticks, on the most inaccessible parts of rocks, and
the parents nourish their young by disgorging into
their throats a portion of their own half-digested food.
The true Vultures are at once distinguishable by
the peculiarity of their aspect. A part of their
head, of greater or less extent, and sometimes the
neck also, is denuded of feathers ; thus ensuring
the comparative cleanliness of the bird, and pre-
serving it from the filth that would accumulate were
the head and neck clothed as in other birds. The
strength of their talons is not proportionate to their
size ; so that they make more use of their beak than
of their claws in procuring food. Their wings are
so long that, when upon the ground, they are
obliged to hold them in a half-extended position.
They are all cowardly in their habits, and generally
feed upon carrion, rarely upon living prey. When
satiated with food, their distended crop projects, a
fetid fluid runs from their nostrils, and they become,
from very repletion, reduced to a state of helpless
inactivity. Among filth and putridity they seem to
be in their native element, and they, themselves,
have a rank and disagreeable odour. When they
first rise from the ground, their flight is heavy and
embarrassed ; but after a few circuits it becomes
rapid and well-sustained ; so that when fairly on the
wing they can rise to a considerable elevation.
There is something ignoble in the gait of the whole
race, and the vileness of their disposition is indicated
by their attitude. Their wings hang down, and
their tail drags on the ground : their whole ap-
pearance is repulsive. Nevertheless, in hot climates

24- ACCIPITRES.

their presence is of essential service, in removing
filtli, wliich would otherwise pollute the atmosphere.
Hence, in some countries, laws are enacted for their
protection, and they may be seen upon the roofs of
houses, or even frequenting the streets, where their
presence is not only tolerated, but encouraged.
Indeed, besides their usefulness when living, they
have an additional security in their utter worthless-
ness when dead.

Vultures are gregarious, and often associate in
flocks of from twenty to thirty, or more, seeking in
concert the carrion upon which they feed. When
thus employed, they wheel in large circles that seem
to intersect each other, as if forming an immense
chain of rounded links, and thus inspect a consi-
derable extent of country. A flock of twenty can
in this manner easily survey an area of two miles.
Some fly at a considerable altitude, vfhilst others
keep near the ground, so that not a spot is left
unexamined. The moment a dead animal is dis-
covered, the lucky bird rounds to, and by the im-
petuosity ,of its movements attracts the notice of
its nearest companion, who immediately hastens to
share the feast, and is successively followed by all
the rest. Thus, the furthest from the discoverer,
although at a considerable distance, goes in a
straight line towards the spot indicated by the flight
of the others, as though attracted by an extraor-
dinary acuteness of smelling, erroneously attributed
to these birds. If the object discovered is large,
lately dead, and covered with a skin too tough to
be torn asunder, they remain about it, or linger in
the vicinity, perched on the dead branches of high
trees. In this conspicuous position they are easily
seen by other Vultures, who through habit well
know the meaning of such stoppages, and join the
first flock. Around the spot they remain, some
of them from time to time examining the dead
body, giving' it a tug in those parts most accessible,
until they find its putridity sufficiently advanced.

vulturidj:. 25

The accumulated number then fall to work, exhibit-
ing a most disgusting ^^icture of famished voracity,
the strongest driving otf the weakest, and the latter
harassing the former with all the animosity that a
disappointed hungry stomach can excite. They may
then be seen jumping off the carcase, re-attacking
it^ entering it and wrestling for portions partly
swallowed by two or more of them ; hissing . at a
furious rate, and every moment clearing their nos-
trils from the filth that enters there and stops their
breathing. The carcase is soon reduced to a mere
skeleton, no portion of it being now too tough to be
torn apart and swallowed, so that nothing is I'eft but
the bare bones. The repast finished, the gorged
Vultures slowly fly to the highest branches of the
nearest trees, and remain there until the full diges-
tion of all the food they have swallowed is com-
pleted. This takes, oftentimes, more than a day,
when successively, and very often singly, each Vul-
ture is seen to depart.

The type of this sub -family —

The Arabian Vulture {Vultur mormchus) measures
about four feet m length, and the extent of its wings
is proportionately wide ; nevei-theless, in spite of its
large size and great muscular strength, it is not a dan-
gerous neighbour even to the farmer ; for unless pressed
by hunger, it seems to . have a di*ead of living annuals,
and contents itself with feeding upon any carrion that
may come in its way.

The specific name of monachus, or monk, was given to
it by Linnseas, on account of the hood-like rutf round its
neck, its bald head, and the general colour of its dress,
much resembling the garb of the monastics formerly so
numerous in Arabia and Palestine.

Its nest is built upon the most inaccessible cliffs, where it
forms a flat mass of sticks three or four feet in diameter.
XJ]3on this platform the female deposits two or rarely
three eggs, which are white, with a faint bluish tinge.

The range of the Arabian Vulture extends over the
whole of northern Africa, Arabia, Persia, India, and the
more mountainous parts of the south of Europe.

26

ACCIPITRES.

SUB-FAMILY IV.
Gypohieracin.e/"' The Eagle-Vultures.

Gen. Charac. — Bill lengthened, much compressed on the sides, and the base
covered with a cere for one-third of the length of the bill; wings lengthened
and pointed ; tarsi covered with rather large reticulated scales.

^-^^

-THE ABTGOLA VULTURE.

Fig. 11

( Giipuhierax Aiigoloiisis.)

The type of this sub-family —

The Angola Vulture {Gypohierax Angolensis) is sup-
posed to be ]:)eculiarto Western Africa, but its habits are,
on account of its rarity, at present entirely unknown.

* yy'^, gyps, a vulture; \'ipa'£,, hierax, a hawk ; Hawk- Vulture.

FALCON ID.E. 27

FAMILY II.
Falconid.e. Tlie Falcons.

Gex. Charac— Bill partly covered at the base by a cere, compressed on the
sides, with the culmen curved from the cere to the tip, which is hooked and
acute, and the lateral margins either toothed or festooned ; wings long and
pointed ; tail moderate and broad ; tarsi and toes of various lengths and
strong ; claws long, curved, and acute, especially those of the inner and
hind toes. The head and neck are covered with feathers, and the eyes
placed laterally, deeply sunk, and protected -by a bony b.-ow.

The Falcons^ as a group, are easily to be recog-
nized among tlie other birds of prey. Their head and
neck are covered mth feathers, and their eyes, placed
upon the sides of their head, are overshadowed
and protected by a prominent eyebrow, which gives
them the appearance of being deeply sunk, and thus
imparts to their physiognomy a peculiarly ferocious
and determined expression. For the most part they
subsist upon prey killed by themselves ; but they
differ widely in the amount of courage displayed in
the pursuit of their quarry; there are, however, a few
species that will share vnt\ the Vultures their dis-
gusting meal. The Falcons usually seize and carry
off their victims by means of their powerfully-armed
feet, and their beak is, in most cases, only used for
tearing it to pieces. Some of them feed almost
exclusively on birds and small quadrupeds ; others
upon snakes, frogs, and lizards ; there are a few that
live upon fishes, while a considerable number derive
a ^'reat portion of their nourishment exclusively from
insects. Their mode of capturing prey is also greatly
diversified. Some^ hover in the air or sail slowly
along until the quarry appears in sight, when they
plunge down upon it with the rapidity of lightning.
Some pursue their game with the greatest pertina-
city, until they get an opportunity of clutching it
with their murderous talons ; whilst others frequent
woods and thickets, where, like cats, they appear to
lie in wait for their victims.

ZO ACCIPITKES.

The plumage of the young birds is often very
different from that of the adults^ a circumstance
which has caused the number of species to be mis-
takenly multiplied. They make their nests of dried
sticks among rocks or in tall trees^wherein they lay
from two to five eggs. The females are generally
larg'er than the males, but inferior to them in the
beauty of their plumage.

This family includes the Caracaras, the Buzzards,
the Eagles, the Falcons, the Kites, the Sparrow-
hawks, and the Harriers.

^Cir^'

FALCOXID.E.

29

SUB-FAMILY I.

POLYBORIX.E.*

The Caracaras.

Gen Charac— Bill compressed at the sides, slightly hooked at the tip, and the
lateral margins slightly festooned ; wings long, with the third to the fifth
quills the longest ; tarsi long, slender, and covered with irregular scales ; toes
nioderate, strongly scaled above, and all armed with strong acute claws.

Fig. 12.— the Brazilian kite.
(Pohfhoruii Braziliensis.)

The birds composing this sub-family are all pecu-
liar to the warmer parts of South America and the
adjacent islands. Their flight is heavy and indolent,
and they do not soar into the air^ but only fly from
place to place. On the ground they are yery active,
and run with great quickness^ after the manner of
* TToXvjiopDQ, polyboros, much-devouring, voracious.

30 ACCIPITRES.

the galliiiaceons birds. Their food consists of car-
rion, worms, larvse of insects, and even the roots of
plants; while some frequent the. sea-shore, or the
borders of lakes and swamps, seeking for small fishes.
Sometimes they may be seen in small parties attack-
ing birds and other animals, especially those that
are in a sickly state. After they have gorged them-
selves with food their craws become protuberant like
those of Vultures.

The type of the group —

The Caracara {Polyhorus Braziliensis), called also the
Carancha, derives its vernacular name from its peculiar
cry, which resembles the sound of the Spanish guttural
G, followed by a rough double r r. This bird is about
the size of our common kite, and has a tail nine inches
in length ; it is generally met with throughout South
America, to which continent it is peculiar.

The Carancha feeds indifferently upon carrion, insects,
or snails, and will sometimes attack new-born lambs.
It does not generally give chase to birds, but, on the
contrary, is attacked by them whenever it flies ; chickens,
however, are not safe from its depredations, and it will
even seize upon game shot by the sj^ortsmau. It is
rather an indolent bird, especially when gorged with
food, and never flies to any great height, but, on the
ground, it runs with facility. Along the banks of the
Rio de la Plata, they may be seen upon the ground
watching the slaughter-houses, and devouring the offal,
or they will track the course pursued by the hunters, in
hopes of obtaining the rejected portions of the animals
slain. They likewise frequent the sea-shore, where they
eat crabs, dead fish, and other garbage thrown up by the
waves. They have, however, heen known to kill par-
tridges, and during the breeding season they destroy the
eggs of various birds.

Their nest is commonly built upon trees or upon the
ledges of rocks ; the female lays five or six eggs, which
are pointed at one end, and of a reddish-brown colour,
spotted with red.

Under the name of the Mexican Eagle, the figure
of the Caracara is embroidered on the Ijanners of the
Mexican Government.

FALCONID.E.

31

SUB-FAMILY TI.

BUTEONIX.E,

The Buzzards.

Gen. Chakac. — Bill short, broad at the base, with the culmen much curved to
the tip, which is acute, and the lateral margins festooned ; the cere covers

• more than the basal half of the beak ; wings long, the third and fourth quills
generally the longest ; tarsi lengthened, generally naked, and covered both
in front and behind with broad transverse scales ; toes, including the hind
one, rather short.

Fig. 13.— the common buzzakd.
{Buteo vulgaris.)

These birds are found in most parts of the world :
they have a heavy and indolent appearance^ and
generally inhabit woods and forests. Their flighty
which is sometimes performed during the twilight,
is easy and buoyant, and generally taken in exten-
sive sweeps over meadows and marshes, near the
surface of the ground. They live upon small birds.

32 ACCIPITRES.

quadrupeds, and reptiles, whicli they eitlier seize
while flying or strike upon the ground, darting upon
them from the top of a tree or hillock, from whence
they have been watching. They breed in woods, or
sometimes upon rocks, or on the sides of deep ra-
vines. Their nest is composed of sticks, and lined
with wool, hay, and other soft materials, or occa-
sionally they will take possession of the nests of
other birds. Their eggs are usually two or three in
number.

The typical species, —

The Common Buzzard {Buteo* vulgaris) is met with
in many parts of Europe, and is well known in the
British Isles. It is rather an inactive bird, but may be
often seen soaring to a great height, and sailing round in
circles. When in pursuit of prey, it glides over the
fields at no great distance from the ground, and pounces
down upon any victim that may come within the range
of its vision. It lives npon small birds, and is most
destructive to young grouse and partridges ; nothing,
however, seems to come amiss to its appetite, and small
quadrupeds, reptiles, and even earthworms, are equally
acce])table, but it does not often pursue feathered prey
upon the wing. The Buzzard is a bird of very sylvan
habits, delighting in tlie most extensive chases and ]jarks,
where there is abundance of aged timber. It has often
been described as being in the habit of watching from an
eminence or lofty tree, and thence sweeping down on
l>rey that may happen to come into its vicinity ; for this
purpose it is said to remain for hours in one situation ;
it is probable, however, that these long stationary pei'ches
are simply the result of repletion, or for the purpose of
rest after the exertion of hunting.

The nest of the Buzzard is composed of sticks mixed
with heath, and lined with w^ool and grass. The eggs
are three or four in number, oval in shape, and of a dull
or slightly bluish-wliite, sometimes nearly spotless, ))ut
usually spotted with rusty brown. The young accom-
pany the old birds for some time after quitting their nest,
a circumstance unusual amongst birds of prey.

* Butco, a buzzard.

FALCON ID.?:.

33

SUB-FAMILY I If.

AQriLlN.E.

Tlie Eagles.

Gex. Charac. — Bill moderate, culmen elerated and straight at the base, and
then much arched to the tip, which is hooked and acute, the sidea much
compressed, and the lateral margins more or less festooned; nostrils placed

. in front of the cere, large, and generally oval; wings lengthened and acute,
with the third, fourth, and fifth quills usually the longest ; tail long, ample,
and mostly rounded at the end ; tarsi long, clothed with feathers to the base
of the toes, or naked and covered with variously- formed scales ; toes long,
strong, united at the base (especially the two outer) ; lateral toes unequal
both in length and strength, the inner being the strongest ; claws long,
strong, much curved, and acute, that of the inner toe the strongest.

Fig 14. — the golden eag]

34 ACCIPITRES.

These noble birds are to be met with in most
parts af the world, regardless of temperature, but
preferring the mountainous districts. They usually
soar to a great height in the air, and from this eleva-
tion they will descend upon their victims. They may,
however, sometimes be seen sailing along at no
great altitude over woody valleys, ravines, and the
declivities of mountains, as well as over cultivated
land, or seated on a rock, patiently awaiting the
approach of some quadruped or bird upon which
they can prey. Although usually addicted to live
upon much nobler game, lizards, insects, and even
carrion, are not always beneath their notice. Their
flight is easy, and usually performed in lofty cir-
cuitous sweeps. Their nest is composed of branches,
sticks, heather, and other materials, and covers a
large space of ground : it is generally placed upon a
projecting part of some inaccessible cliff, or on the
summit of a large tree. The eggs are ordinarily two
in number.

The type of the race —

The Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos)* is amongst the
largest of European birds ; the female, which throughout
the Falcon family is larger than the male, often measures
three feet and a half in length, and upwards of eight
feet across when the wings are extended. Bewick men-
tions a very large specimen killed at Warkworth, in
Northumber-land, which measured eleven feet in its
extent of wing. Its prey consists of large quadrupeds,
and birds, fawns, lambs, black and red grouse ; and it is
only under the extremity of hunger that it will feed
upon carrion, or attack a dead carcase. The stoop of
the Eagle is one of the grandest displays of force in the
whole range of animated nature, and is generally at once
fiital from the violence of the shock : should it, however,
fail in destroying life, the clutch mstantly follows ; in
giving which the wliole strength of the bird, m the
utmost excitement, with the head elevated, the neck

* XpvfTOQ, chrysos, gold ; cierog, aetos, an eagle; Golden Eagle.

FALCONIDiE. 35

stiff, the feathers of the head and neck erected, and the
wings shivering, so as to keep up the pressure on the
instruments of death, is concentrated on the tah^ns, with
which alone these birds kill their victims. In general
the prey is borne off, but in some cases it is devoured
upon the spot.

The ordinary habits of the Eagle are thus graphically
d,escribed by Mr. MacGillivray : — " There he stands,
nearly erect, with his tail depressed, his large wings
half raised from his sides, his neck stretched out, and his
eye glistening as he glances around. Like other robbers
of the desert, he has a noble aspect, an imperative mien,
a look of jwoud defiance ; but his nobility has a dash of
clownishness, and his falconship a vulturine tinge. Still
he is a noble biixl, powerful, independent, but ferocious,
regardless of the weal or woe of others, and intent solely
on the gratification of his own appetites ; without gene-
rosity, without honour, bold against the defenceless, but
ever ready to sneak from danger. Such is his nobility,
about which men have so raved. Suddenly he raises his
wings, for he has heard the whistle of the shej^herd in
the corry, and bending forward he springs into the air.
Hardly , do those vigorous flappings serve at first to
prevent his descent ; but now, curving upwards, he
glides majestically along. As he passes the corner of
that buttressed and battlemented crag, forth rush two
ravens from their nest, croaking fiercely. AVhile one
flies above him, the other steals beneath, and they essay
to strike him, but dare not, for they have an instinctive
knowledge of the power of his grasp, and after following
him a little way they return to their home, exulting in
the thought that they have driven him from their neigh-
bourhood. Bent on a far journey, he advances forwards
in a direct course, flapping his great wings at regular
intervals, then shooting along without appearing to move
them. In ten minutes he has advanced three miles,
although he is in no haste. Over the moors he sweeps,
at the lieight of two or three hundred feet, bending his
course to either side, his wings wide spread, his neck and
feet retracted, now beating the air, and again sailing
smoothly. Suddenly he stops, poises himself for a
moment, stoops, l)ut recovers himself before reaching the
ground. The object of his regards, a Golden Plover,

8G ACC'IPITRES.

lias eluded him, and he cares not to pursue it. Now he
ascends a little, wheels in short curves, presently rushes
down headlong, assumes the horizontal position when
close to the ground, and prevents himself from being
dashed against it by expanding his wings and tail ; he
now thrusts forth his talons, and grasping a poor terrified
PUirmigan that sat cowering among the grey lichens,
squeezes it to death. He raises his head exultingly,
emits a shrill cry, and springing from the ground pursues
his journey. In passing a tall cliff that overhangs a small
lake, he is assailed by a fierce Peregrine Falcon, Avhich
darts and plunges at him, as if determined to deprive him
of his booty or drive him headlong to the ground. This
proves a more dangerous foe than the Raven, and the
Eagle yelps, screams, and throws himself into postures of
defence ; but, at length, the Falcon, seeing that the
tyrant is not bent on plundering her nest, leaves him to
pursue his course Tinmolested. Over woods and scattered
hamlets speeds the Eagle, and now the long narrow
valley of the Dee appears in sight, near the upper end of
which is dimly seen, through the grey mist, the rock of
his retreat. About a mile from it he meets his mate,
who has been abroad uj)on a similar errand, and is return-
ing with a white Hare in her talons ; they congratulate
each other with loud yelping cries, which rouse the
drowsy shepherd in the strath below, who, mindful of
the lambs carried oft' in spring time, sends after them his
maledictions. Now they reach their nest, and are greeted
by their young with loud clamour. The locality where
the nest is situated is the shelf of a rock, concealed by
a projecting angle, so that it cannot be injured from
above, and too distant from the base to be reached by a
shot. The nest is a bulky fabric, five feet at least in
diameter, rudely constructed of dead sticks, twigs, and
heath, flat in the centre, where it is a little hollowed, and
covered with wool and feathers. Slovenly creatures you
would think those two young bii'ds, covered with white
down, amongst w^hich the feathers j:)roject, and you see
that if the nest had been formed more compactly and of
softer materials it would have been less comfortable.
Strewn around are fragments of lambs, hares, grouse, and
other birds, in various stages of decay. Alighting on the
edges of the nest, the Eagles deposit their prey, partially

falco:nid.e.

37

pluck off tlie hairs and feathers, and rudely teai'ing off
the flesh, lay it before their hungry young."

Fig. 15 —eagle's nest.

The Golden Eagle seems formerly to have been by no
means an uncommon bii'd in the British isles, but the
increase of population, and the cultivation of the land,
have driven it to the remoter parts of the kingdom, and
it is now only to be found in the Highlands of the North,
the wildernesses of Ireland, and occasionally in Wales.
On the Continent it is more abundant, particularly in the
northern and hilly countries, as in Norway, Sweden, and
some parts of Prussia. It is also found, but more rarely,
in Germany and France, and still less frequently in Italy
or farther southwards.

The extensive sub-family of the Eagles includes
a great number of birds more or less agreeing in
their habits with the description of the Golden Eagle
given above^ but nevertheless divisible by certain
peculiarities into several distinct groups^ distin-
guished by different names ; among these it will be

D

38 ACCIPITRES.

necessary to select one or two of tlie most remark-
able, in order to exemplify tlie general character of
this formidable race.

The Sea-Eagles {llaliaetus") are large and powerfal
birds inhabiting both the Ohl and New Worhls, They
are usually found in mountainous districts near the sea,
or on precipices that border inland lakes. Fishes consti-
tute their principal food, which are generally obtained, as
described hereafter, in no very honest manner ; but they
likewise prey upon large quadrupeds aud aquatic birds,
or even feed freely upon carrion. The borders of inland
lakes, and the rocky mai'ghis of the larger rivei's, are in
turn made the scenes of their predatory exj^loits. " In
such situations, this ruthless tyrant may be seen perched
in an erect attitude on the highest summit of the tallest
tree, from whence his glistening but stern eye'^looks
dov/n on the scene beneath. He listens attentively to
every sound, glancing now and then around, lest even the
light tread of the fawn should pass unheard. His mate
is perched on the opj^osite bank of the river, and should
all be silent, warns him by a cry to remain patient. At
this well-known call, the male partly opens his broad
wings, inclines his body a little downwards, and answers
to her voice in tones not unlike the laugh of a maniac.
The next moment he resumes his erect attitude, and all
is again silent. Ducks of many species, the Teal, the
Widgeon, the Mallard, and others, are seen j^assing and
following the course of the current ; but the Eagle heeds
them not, they are at this time beneath his attention.
The next moment, however, the wild trumpet-like scream
of a yet distant but approaching swan is heard. A shriek
from the female Eagle comes across the stream, for she is
fully as alert as her mate. The latter suddenly shakes
himself, and with a few touches of his beak arranges his
plumage. The snow-white bird is now in sight, her
long neck is stretched forward, her eye is on the watch,
vigilant as that of her enemy — she approaches, however,
and the Eagle has marked her for his prey. As the
Swan is passing the dreaded pair, the male Eagle starts
from his perch with an awful scream, that to the Swan's
ear brings more terror than the rej^ort of a gun. Now

* uXg,tliesea; aircg, an eagle ; Sea-Eagle.

FALCONID.E.

39

is tlie moment to witness the Eagle's powers

he glides

through the air like a falling star, and comes upon the
timorous quarry, w^hich, in an agony of despair, seeks by
various nianreuvres to elude the grasp of his cruel talons.
It mounts, it doubles, and willingly would plunge into
the stream, were it not prevented by the Eagle, which.

Fig. 16. — the sea-eagle.
{Ilalidetug Alhicilla.)

long possessed of the knowledge that by such a stratagem
the Swan might escape him, forces it to remain in the
air by attempting to strike it with his talons from
beneath. The poor Swan has now become much ex-
D 2

40 ACCIPITRES.

liaiisted, and its strength fails it — it is almost at its last
gasp, when its ferocious pursuer strikes with his claws
the under side of its wing, and witli unresisted power
forces the bird to fall in a slanting direction upon the
nearest shore. And now the Eagle presses down his
jiowerful feet, and drives his talons deep into the heart
of the dying Swan — lie shrieks with delight as he feels
the last convulsions of his prey, and the female who has
watched every movement of her mate, now sails to the
spot to participate in the gory banquet." — [Audabon.)

The nest of these birds is of considerable size, and
composed of the branches of trees and sticks. The eggs
are white, and two in number.

The Ospreys {Pandion"'')^ more commonly known as
the Fish-Hawks, only reside in the vicinity of the sea,
or of lakes and rivers abounding with fish, tipon which
they principally subsist. Their slender form is admi-
rably adapted to this pursuit, and their strong talons
enable them to seize with a firm grasp their scaly and
slippery prey. Their flight is heavy but easy, and they
fly equally well either in a straight Ime or in circles high
in the air, where they may be seen wheeling round and
round, apparently without the least exertion, and rarely
even moving their wings.

A rencontre between the Fish-Hawk and the Sea-
Eagle, so eloquently described by Wilson, equally illus-
trates the habits of Iboth these tyrants of the sky.

" Elevated on the high dead limb of some gigantic
tree that commands a wide view of the neighbouring
shore and ocean, the Sea-Eagle seems calmly to con-
template the motions of the various feathered tribes that
pursue their avocations below; the snow-white Gulls
slowly winnowing the air ; the busy Sand-pipers coursing
along the sands ; trains of Ducks streaming over the sur-
face ; silent and watchful Cranes intent and wading ;
clamorous Crows, and all the winged multitudes that
subsist by the bounty of this vast magazine of nature.
High over all there hovers one whose action instantly
arrests his whole attention. By his wide curvature of
wing and sudden suspension in air, he knows him to be
the Fish-Hawk settling over some devoted victim in the

* The name of a king of Athens.

FALCON I D.E.

41

deep. His eye kiiidles at tlie sight, and balancing him-
self with half-opened wings on the branch, he watches
the result. Down, ra]jid as an arrow from heaven,
descends the distant object of his attention, the roar of
his wings reaching the ear as it disappears in the deep,
making the surges foam around ! At this moment the
eager looks of the Eagle are all ardour, and levelling his
neck for fliojht, he sees the Fish-Hawk emeroe, struggliuix
with his prey, and mounting in the air with wild screams
of exultation. These are the signals for our hero, who,

Fig. 17.— the ospkey.

{Pandion.)

launching forth, instantly gives chase, and soon gains on
the Fish-Hawk, while each exerts his utmost to mount
above the other, displaying in these rencontres the most
elegant and sublime aerial evolutions. The unencum-
bered Eagle rapidly advances, and is just on the jwint of
reaching his opponent, when, with a sudden scream of
despair and honest execration, the latter drops his fish.
The Eagle, poising himself for a moment, as if to take a

42

ACCiriTRES.

more certain aim, descends like a whirlwind, snatches it
in his grasp ere it reaches the water, and bears his ill-
gotten booty silently away to the woods."

The nest of the Osj^rey is usually built on the top of
a decayed tree. It is com])osed entirely of sticks from
half an inch to an inch and a half in diameter, and two
or three feet in length, piled to the height of four or five
feet. These are intermixed with straw, sea-weed, and
pieces of turf heaped together in large quantities, and
lined with dry sea-grass. These materials are so well
put together as often to adhere in large fragments, after
beincr blown down by the w^ind.

a^^fe

FALCONID.E.

43

Falconix.e.

SUB-FAMILY IV.

TJie Falco7is ijroper.

Ge>'. Chakac. — Bill short, the cuhnen curved, from the base to the tip, which
on the sides is more or less toothed ; cere covering the nostrils, sometimes
rounded, and sometimes long and linear; -wings lengthened and pointed,
with the second and third quills generally the longest ; tail lengthened, and
more or less rounded ; feet of various proportions j toes usually long and
slender.

Fig. 18.— the peregkixe falcox.
{Falco i^eregrinus.)

Tliese birds are^ in proportion to their size^ tlie
most courageous of the featliered race^ a quality
which is in perfect correspondence with the strength
of their armature and the velocity of their flight.
The length of their wing-quills causes their forward
course^ in a calm atmosphere^ to be very oblique,
so that they are obliged, when they wish to mount

44 ACCIPITRES.

directly upwards, to fly against tlie wind. Never-
theless, tliere is an elegance in tlieir port and a bold-
ness in their aspect, which distinguishes them at a
glance, while their astonishing power of wing and
great muscular strength render them the noblest of
predaceous birds. They are extremely docile : they
may be taught to pursue game, and to return, when
called, to the hand of their master ; qualities of
which man has not failed to avail himseH". Among
the most celebrated species is the type of the race —

The Peregrine Falcon {Falco j^eregrinus). This noble
bird is at once recognizable by a broad triangular mous-
tache of black feathers on the cheeks. It usually mea-
sures from fifteen to eighteen mches in length, and the
female is considerably larger than the male. Such is its
power of flight, that it may almost be said to be ubi-
quitous. It extends its range over the northern part of
})oth hemispheres, and is equally to be met with in the
United States of America, the south of Europe, India,
the Straits of Magellan, and the Cape of Good Hope. It
is from this celebrated species that the chase of game by
means of birds of prey derives its name. It descends
upon its prey vertically, as if it fell from the sky ; hence
it catches birds on the wing. In most districts, grouse
and partridges constitute its favourite food, and it is at
such game that it is taught to fly ; but m the vicinity of
water it destroys numbers of aquatic birds, swooping
down and carrying them ofl" in its talons. Rabbits and
leverets are also frequently destroyed by these marauders,
and their boldness is such that they have been known
to strike grouse sprung by the sportsman's dog before
they had risen high enough to be shot at.

When searching after prey, this Falcon often adopts a
flight resembling that of the tame pigeon, until perceiving
its victim, it redoubles its flappmgs, and j^ursues the
fugitive with a rapidity scarcely to be conceived. Its
turnings and windings through the air are now surprising.
It follows and nears the timorous quarry at every turn
which the latter attempts. Arrived witlim a few feet of
the prey, the Falcon extends his powerful legs and talons
to their full stretch ; his wings almost close for a moment,
and the next instant he grapples his prize, which, if too

FALCOXID.E. 45

heavy to be carried off dii'ectly, lie forces obliquely
towards the ground, sometimes a hundred feet from the
place where it w^as seized, to kill it and devour it on the
spot.

Under other circumstances, when the female Falcon
conies within sight of her cpiarry, she Ijounds upwards,
every stroke of the wings producing a j^erpendicular
'leap, as if she were climbing those gigantic stairs into
which ^"^ature moulds her basaltic rocks, and when she
has " got the sky" of her prey to a sufficient height for
gaining the necessary impetus, her wings shiver for a
moment, as she works herself into perfect command and
poise. Then, prone she dashes, with so much velocity
that the impression of her path remains on the eye, in
the same manner as that of the shooting meteor or the
flashing lightning. The observer fancies that there is a
torrent of Falcon rushing for fathoms through the air.
The stroke is as unerring as the motion is fleet. If it
take effect in the body, the bird is trussed, and the hunt
is over ; but if a wdiig only is broken, the maimed bird is
allowed to flutter to the earth, and another is marked for
the collision of death.

The Falcon s command of the air is truly wonderful ;
a few strokes of its powerful wing will send it up till it
is hardly visible, or bring it from the top of its flight to
within a short distance from the ground. At times it
will ride motionless, as if anchored in the sky, and anon,
with hardly any perceptible movement of the wings,
shoot down with the rapidity of an arrow. The collision
with their prey is terribly effective. It is no slight force
which can break a wing, strike off' a head, or burst a
bird asunder, when it is not merely suspended in the
air l)ut in rapid motion, away from the striker. If the
Falcon misses, w^e need not wonder that the game escapes
before its pursuer recovers himself — {Mudie.)

The Peregrine Falcon usually builds a nest amongst
nearly inaccessible rocks on the sea-coast, but sometimes
selects an inland station. The nest is a bulky structure,
composed of sticks and dried plants, and in it the female
lays three or four eggs, of a dull light red colour, with
darker spots.

D 3

46

ACCIPITRES.

MiLVJN.E.

SUB-FAMILY V.

The Kites.

Gex. Charac. — Bill short, weat, with the tip hooked and acute, and the lateral
margins sinuated ; nostrils basal and lateral, with the opening mostly in
the form of an oblique slit ; wings long and pointed ; tarsi hardly longer than
the hind toe, and robust; toes moderate, broad, and padded beneath.

Fig. 19.— the common kite.
{Milcns regalis.)

Tlie sliortness of their legs and the feebleness
of tlieir talons, conjoined with a beak equally dis-
proportioned to their size^ causes the Kites to be the
most cowardly of the Falcon race ; while, on the
other hand, the excessive length of their wings and
their forked tail enable them to fly with wonderful
ease and elegance. These birds, indeed, appear to

FALCONID.E. 47

support themselves in tlie air without the least
exertion. They glide smoothly along, rising, de-
scending, and wheeling round in graceful circles,
without any movement of their wings, but simply
by the guidance of their rudder-like tail. It is from
this beautiful gliding motion that they seem to have
received, from our Saxon ancestors, the name of
'Ghd or Gleacl.

The Kites are met with in various parts of the
world ; in hot climates, more especially, they may
be seen in great numbers watching from some lofty
tree for whatever may present itself in the way of
food, or they sometimes soar to a great height in the
air. Nevertheless they seize their prey upon the
ground. They live chiefly upon young hares, rats,
birds, and lizards, but are by no means averse to
carrion. Their nest is built in a fork of some large
tree, and is made of sticks, lined with various soft
materials.

The t}^3e of this sub-f\imily, —

The Common Kite (Milvus regalis), although now be-
come scarce in England, is still seen occasionally in the
Lake districts of Cumberland, and in tlie south-eastern
parts of Scotland. On the Continent of Europe it is not
uncommon, its range extendmg eastward mto Siberia.
In the more northern regions it is only a summer resi-
dent, migrating southward in the autumn. The Kite is
a bird of considerable size, measuring fi.-om twenty-five to
twenty-seven inches in length, including the long forked
tail with which it is furnished. It has been usual to
divide the rapacious birds into two gxeat sections, one
comprismg the noble races, or such as feed exclusively on
l)rey killed by themselves, and the other the ignoble spe-
cies, whose appetite, not so fastidious, permits them to
feast upon carrion. The Kites must certainly be placed
in the latter category, feedmg as they do not only upon
dead animals, but even upon the vilest garbage. Indeed,
there was a time when these birds appear to have ren-
dered the same service in the thoroughfares of London as
the Vultures do at the present day in some of the crowded
cities of the East. We read that not longer ago than the

48 ACCIPITRES.

reign of Henry VIII. our metropolis swarmed with Kites,
attracted thitlier by the otfal thrown into tlie streets, into
which they fearlessly descended to perform the scavenger's
office, it being forbidden to kill them. Shakespeare makes
Hamlet say, — " Ere this I should have fatted all the
region Kites with this slave's olfal," and the words had a
significance in those days which fortunately, in modern
times, is but imperfectly appreciated.

While on the wing, j^erforming its aerial evolutions,
the Kite will sometimes hover for a long time ov^r the
same spot with very little exertion of the wings, even if
there should be a fresh breeze. There are times, how-
ever, probably when it has lost sight of some prize on
the ground, at which it will "■ give itself to the wind,"
and drift to leeward in very beautiful style, apparently
with complete self-possession. This manoeuvre, though
held in great contempt by the Falcons, is by no means
ungraceful or uninteresting ; the bird rides lightly on the
gale, but retains its self-command, so that it can take a
new direction whenever it pleases.

The nest, built with sticks, and lined with feathers
and moss, is placed in some lofty tree. The eggs are from
four to six in number.

" The Indian Kite (Milvus Govinda) is one of the most
abundant and common birds in India, found at all ele-
vations up to 8,000 feet, especially near large towns and
cantonments, and its vast numbers and fearlessness
surprise the stranger from England, where birds of prey
are so rare. Every large town, cantonment, and even
village, has its colony of Kites, which ply their busy
vocation from before sunrise to some time after sunset.
Every large camp, too, is followed by these useful
scavengers, and the tent even of a single traveller is
daily visited by one or more, according to the numbers in
the neiglibourhood. As is well known, Kites pick uj)
garbage of all kinds, fragments of meat and fish, and
generally the refuse of man's food. When a basket of
refuse or otial is thrown out into the streets to be carted
away, the Kites of the immediate neighbourhood, who
appear to be quite cognizant of the usual time at which
this is done, are all on the look-out, and dash down on
it impetuously ; some of them seizing the most tempting
morsels by a rapid swoop, others deliberately sitting

FALCON ID.E. 49

down on the heaps, along with the dogs and crows, and
.selecting their scraps. On such an occasion, too, there
is many a struggle to retain a larger fragment than usual ;
for the possessor no sooner emerges from its swoop than
several empty-clawed spectators instantly ])ursue it eagerly,
till the owner finds the chase too hot, and drops the bone
of contention, which is generally picked up long before
it reaches the ground, again and again to change owners,
and perhaps finally to revert to its original proprietor. On
such occasions there is a considerable amount of squealing
going on. Though it is generally on sufficiently good
terms with the crows in company on a heap of garbage,
yet I have frequently seen it pursue a crow and force it
to relinquish a coveted morsel. The Crows, however,
often tease a Kite, apparently without any object but
that of a little amusement to themselves. The food of
the Kite is usually devoured on the wing, or if too large,»
carried to the nearest house or tree. Mr. Blyth notices
their collecting in numbers without any apparent object,
especially towards evening. This I have frequently
observed at all large stations, where all the Kites of the
neighbourhood, before retii'ing to roost, appear to hold
conclave." — Jerdau^ '■'■Birds of India,"

50

ACCIl'ITRES.

SUBFAMILY VL
AcciPiTRiN^. The Simrroin-Havjhs.

Gen. Chahac. — Bill short, much arcted from the base to the tip, -nhich is
acute, the sides compressed, and the lateral margins greatly festooned :
wings generally long ; tail ample; tarsi lengthened and shielded in front ;
toes of various length, and generally slender ; claws long, and very acute.

Fig. 20. — the sparuow-hawk.
{Accipiter nimis.)

These birds are found in various parts of the
world, generally frequenting valleys and wooded
districts. They are very courageous : their flight is
low, sweeping near the ground with much rapidity,
and they pounce upon their prey while on the wing
with deadly certainty. Their food consists almost
exclusively of birds, such as partridges and pigeons ;
but sometimes they devour lizards and other small
animals. Their nest is built upon low trees, or in a

FALCON JD.E. 51

busli, and is composed of slender sticks. They lay
from four to six eggs.

The type of tlie race is —

The Sparrow-Hawk {Accipiter nisus), one of the
nuist abundant of our British Hawks. It is exceedingly
elegant in its form, and active iii its habits, the length
9f its wmgs permitting it to fly with great rapidity,
while its broad and powerful tail enables it to perform
astonishing evolutions. When hunting for its prey, it
usually glides swiftly along at the height of only a few
feet from the ground, occasionally passing up one side of
a hedge and do^\al another. It sometimes pursues birds
upon the wing, but usually pounces upon them while
resting either upon the ground, or on the branch of a
tree or bush.

Of all the smaller European birds of prey, the Spar-
row-Hawk is one of the boldest and most intrepid ;
unlike many of the true Falcons of its own size, which
live in a great measure upon insects, it preys almost
exclusively upon feathered game, and hence is peculiarly
obnoxious in preserves, especially dining the breeding-
season. Quick-eyed and rapid, it darts upon its quarry
like an arrow, and pursues it with unrelenting perti-
nacity, undaunted even by the presence of man, to whom
the terrified fugitive has often been known to trust in
the desperate emergency — indeed many instances are on
record of the Lark or the Pigeon rushing into houses
through the open windows, followed by their undaunted
foe.

The flight of the Sparrow- Hawk is not of that soarmg
character which distinguishes the true Falcons. Instead
of descending on its prey from aloft, and striking it
down, or, if missing the stroke, mounting again and
repeating the assault, it darts at it without rising to any
altitude, and follows up the chase until able to efiect its
capture.

The Sparrow-Hawk is universally but moderately
distributed throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa. It
builds its nest in trees ; the eggs are generally four in
number, of a dull bluish-white marked with angular red
blotches.

r^9.

ACCIPITRES.

SUB-FAMILY VIL

CiRCIN.E.

The Harrier's.

Gex. Charac. — Bill moderate, short, with the eulmen much curved to the tip,
which is hooked ; sides compressed, and the lateral margins festooned ; wings
lengthened and pointed ; tail long, hroad, and even or rounded at the end ;
tarsi usually lengthened and slender ; toes rather short.

W'^^'.^

Fig. 21.— the hen-hareiek.
{Circus cyaneus.)

Tlie Hawks to wliicli the name of Harrier is
applied, of all the diurnal predaceous birds, make the
nearest approach to the Owls. The softness of their
plumage, accompanied in certain species by a
radiated arrangement of the feathers of the face,
give some of them a very owl-like appearance.
They are described by many writers as deriving
their name of " Harriers " from their mode of seek-
ing their prey. When thus engaged, they fly

FALCONID.E. 0'6

slowly, at but a little distance from the ground,
beating over every part of the surface like a dog
hunting for game. Others, more familiar with
north-country language, derive the name from the
Border word to " harry/^ which means to make a
raid upon cattle.

' The ty|3e of the race is —

The Hen-Harrier {Circus* cyaneus), a British bird
usually met with in flat marshy districts, or on low
moors and commons, where it finds abundance of small
quadrupeds, such as young rabbits, leverets, rats, and
mice, as well as snakes, frogs, and unfledged birds.
Upon these it pounces suddenly, when it finds them
among the herbage. It does not liesitate upon occasions
to attack a grouse or a partridge, and has even been
known to seize upon a pheasant. Indeed, we rather
suspect that its name of Hen-Harrier would indicate its
propensity for plundermg — that is, " harry mg," the
poultry-yard when an opportunity presents itself

The flight of the Hen-Harrier while in quest of its
prey is altogether peculiar. It is light and buoyant, but
performed at no great elevation from the ground, which
it quarters with the utmost regularity, traversmg a cer-
tain extent of country, and returning nearly to the same
place at a given time for many days together. While
thus skimming along with noiseless wings, it strongly
reminds us of the Owls, and, like them, it pounces down
upon its prey with unerring precision.

The Hen-Harrier makes its nest upon the ground in
wild and solitary situations among the tufted herbage
most prevalent upon the spot selected, and here it incu-
bates and rears its young. The eggs very much resemble
those of an Owl, but are larger. They are of a dull,
dirty white colour, without any spots.

* KipKOQ, kirkos, a hind of haivk, which flies in circles.

54 ACCII'ITRES.

SUB-ORDER IT.

accipitres noctueni.

Nocturnal Birds of Prey

TJtis suh-()rde7' comj.iri^c.'^ hut one Fa mil i/.
Strigid.e. Thfi Owls.

Gen. Charac. — Bill short, with the sides compressed, and the base concealed
by projecting bristles; culmen much arched to the tip, which is hooked;
wings usually moderate and rounded ; tail broad and of various length ; tarsi
generally short and feathered to the toes ; toes usually short, and either
clothed with plumes or slightly covered with hairs ; claws long, and very
acute; eyes large and encompassed with a radiated circle of slender hairy
feathers forming a facial disk.

The plumage of tlie Owls is peculiarly soft and
downy, rendering tlieir flight perfectly noiseless,
so that they steal unperceived upon their prey.
Their- eyes, which are of large size, as though to
receive every ray of light that may be available for
vision, look directly forwards. In a strong light
their sight is very imperfect, so that they stand in a
state of complete bewilderment, staring in a most
ludicrous manner at any object presented to them,
and taking every opportunity of concealing them-
selves in some obscure corner. The ears are more
conspicuous than those of any other birds, and are
usually furnished with a sort of lid. The head is
large, and there is no ridge over the eyes, as in the
Falconidaa. The feathers of the face project more
or less forwards, and conceal the cere at the base
of the bill. The outer toe is reversible, and capable
of being turned backwards like that of a parrot.
These birds are recluse in their habits, living in
pairs in the holes of trees, or in old buildings and
other retired places, where they hide during the day-
time ; but in the evening issue forth to seek their
prey, which consists principally of small quadrupeds
and birds. The smaller Owls frequently catch such

STEIGID.E. OO

insects as come abroad in the twiliglit^ more par-
ticularly motlis and beetles. The indigestible por-
tions of tlieir food are disgorged in the shape of
pellets, composed of the bones^ hair, and fur of their
victims. Their voices are generally loud and dis-
cordant. The Owls have been arranged in four
sub-families ; namely, the Hawk-Owls, the Horned
Owls, the Owlets, and the Owls proper.

ACCIPITRES.

SUB-FAMILY I.
SuRNiN^. The Ilawh-Owls.

Gen. Charac— Head small, without tufts, and the facial disk imperfect over
the eyes.

Fig. 22. — the Canada owl.

(Siirnia Ulula.)

These birds inhabit tlic northern parts of Europe
and America, but are by no means peculiar to cold
climates, as they are likewise met with in the southern
parts of Africa. Their food chiefly consists of mice,
birds, and insects ; but during the winter, those of
the northern latitudes feed principally on ptarmigans.
Their nest is built on trees, and is composed of sticks,
grass, and feathers. The female lays two eggs.

STRTGID^. 57

The type of this sub -family, —

The Canada Owl (Surnia Ulula)^ is very common in
the northern parts of North America, where it is remark-
able for its daring disposition.

In Canada it is almost impossible to travel eight or
ten miles in any of the retired woods without seeing
several of them even in broad day ; and at the approach
of night their cries are heard proceeding from every
part of the forest. Should the weather be lowering,
and indicative of the approach of rain, their vociferous
hootings are so multiplied, especially in the evening, and
they respond to each other in tones so strange, that one
might imagine some eltish revelry in progress. On ap-
proacliing one closely, its gesticulations aj-e seen to be of
a very extraordinary nature. The jiosition of the bird,
which is generally erect, is immediately changed. It
inclines its body to w^atch the motions of the intruder,
throws forward the lateral feathers of its head, which
has thus the appearance of bemg surrounded by a broad
ruff, looks toAvards him as if half blind, and moves its
head to and fro in such a manner as almost to induce
a belief that it is separated from the body. It follows
the stranger with its eyes, and should it sus23ect any
treacherous intentions, flies off to a short distance,
alighting with its back to the intruder ; but immediately
tinning about with a smgle junijj, recommences its scru-
tiny. In this way it may be followed to a considerable
distance ; but if shot at and missed, it removes itself out
of reach, after which its whah, whah, wliah is uttered
with ludicrous pomposity.

These Owls wall answ^er the imitation of their own
cries, and are frecpiently destroyed by this artifice. Their
flight is smooth, noiseless, and gi-eatly protracted. They
haA'C been seen to pursue a direct course for more than
two miles until they were lost in the distance. So very
lightly do they fly, that they are frequently discovered
while passing over a person only a few yards distant by
their shadow on the ground cast by the clear moonlight,
when not the faintest rustlino- of their wings can be
heard.

BUBONIN.^.

ACCIl'ITRES.

SUB-FAMILY 11.

The Horned Oids.

Gen. Charac— Head large, broad, flat on the top, and furnished with two
Ijrominent tufts ; facial disk imperfect above the eyes.

Tig. 23.— the eagle-owl.
{Bubo maxiiiius.)

The Owls belonging to tliis sub-family inhabit
most parts of the worlds regardless of climate. They
frequent old buildings_, holes in the sides of trees^,
precipitous hills^ and ravines of the mountains^ or
they may be seen in the deep shades of the swamps
of large forests. Their food is sought for principally
during the nighty and consists of small quadrupeds.

STE1GID.E. 59

bircls^ lizards, and tlie larger insects. Some of the
species have been observed to catch fish, which they
strike at and seize with their foot : during the night
they emit a loud prolonged hoot, and when alarmed
hiss at their assailant and make a loud snapping
noise with their beak. Their nest is built amid
ruins, in rocks, in the hollows or upon the fork of a
tall tree — it is composed of sticks piled in consider-
able quantities, lined with dry leaves and a few
feathers. The members of one genus {Ketupa) be-
longing to the continent and archipelago of India,
fly well by day, are constantly found on the banks
of rivers, and live principally upon fish and crabs.

The t}^iical species, —

The Great Eared Owl, or Eagle-Owl {Bubd^ maximus),
is an inhabitant of Eiu'ope, where it is tolerably com-
mon, but it is only a rare and occasional visitor to the
British islands. When full grown, it meas\ires from
twenty-four to twenty-eight inches ii] length. The head
is ornamented with two large tufts of feathers, which
stand up abov^e the eyes like horns. It can endure light
better than some of its allies, but the season of its
activity is principally during the night.

" Along the mountainous shores of the Ohio, and
amidst the deep forests of Indiana," says Wilson, " this
ghostly watchman has frequently warned me of the
approach of morning, and amused me with his singular
exclamations, sometimes sweeping down and around my
fire, uttering a loud and sudden ' Wa\igh ho ! Waugli
ho ! ' sufficient to have alarmed a whole garrison. He
has other nocturnal solos no less melodious, one of which
very strikingly resembles the half-suppressed screams of
ft person suffocating or half-throttled, which cannot fail
to be exceedingly entertaining to a lonely benighted
traveller in the midst of an Indian wilderness."

When hard pressed, this Owl is said to throw itself
upon its back and defend itself vigorously with its claws :
it has even been described as contending successfully with
the Eagle.

At all events, it may be considered as one of the

* Bubo, a long-eared owl.

0(J

A( Ciri'l'l.'KS.

most powerful of its ]'ace, Ijoklly preying upon the largest
game. Perched uj^on some branch, and obscured by the
shadows of evening, it marks its ili-fated quarry, — the
fawn reposing among the fern, the hare nibbling the
grass, tlie grouse crouching among the heath. Silently
and rai)idly down it pounces, strikes its victim, and
commences the work of desti-uction. Less noble game,
such as moles, rats, and lizards, may be also ranked
auKjng the ai-ticles of its food. This fine bird chooses
the clefts of rocks, or the hollows of decayed trees of
anticpie growth, for the pui'pose of nidification, laying
three eggs of a rounded shape and white colour.

4 •■-

strigid.t:.

Gl

SUB-FAMILY TIT.

Syrxin^.

The OwleU

Gkn. Chaeac— Head large, smooth, and furnished with two small tufts; facial
disk moderate and complete, or nearly so.

Fig. 2i. — the brown owl
(Suriiium Aliico.)

Tlie Owlets are found in various parts of the
worlds even in very High latitudes^ hunting in the
shady woods and thick plantations for a short time
before the sun sinks below the horizon^ but hiding
themselves during the day in ruins and hollow trees.
In the northern latitudes they may frequently be
seen flpng about even at midday^ and their flight is
gliding and noiseless. They live upon small quadru-
peds, birds, and fish, all of which they strike with
their foot. They build amidst rocks or upon lofty trees,
and the nest is composed of a considerable quantity

B

62 ACCIPITRES.

of sticks^ lined with a few featliers. Some species,
however, lay their eggs in the deserted nests of other
birds or scrape a slight hollow on the ground in the
midst of heath; while the nests of others (Nydule)
are built of grass, and generally placed in holes or
clefts of pine trees.

The typical species, —

The Brown Owl (-S'y/rwm?;?.^Z?^<:"o), sometimes called the
Tawny Owl, is not uncommon in England. It is strictly
nocturnal ; the glare of day dazzles and renders it quite
liel})less, and it sliows the wisdom that might haA'e been
expected from the favourite of Minerva, by retreating
during the bright hours to the gloom of some thick wood,
where it rejwses among the dense foliage. In the evening,
liowever, it quits its concealment to satisfy its somewhat
indiscriminate appetite. Flitting along with noiseless
wing, it sui'prises the smaller quadrupeds, and even seizes
young rabbits and ))irds, varying this sui)per sometimes
with frogs, insects, and even fish, whicli it will caj^ture
in shallow water : it likewise will devour earthworms.
While engaged in its predatory excursi(ms it emits a
loud doleful cry, resemblmg hoo, hoo, hoo, and occasionally
utters a shrill scream.

The nest of the Brown Owl is composed principally of
the dried pellets of undigested bones and fur or feathers,
which all Owls are in the habit of disgorging. It is
usually placed in a hollow tree, and here the female lays
about four eggs, from which emerge, in due time, as
many grotesque- looking bodies, enveloped in a soft j^lush,
which are destined, in time, to become Brown Owls.
The eggs are of large size, measuring nearly two inches
in length by an inch and a half in their transverse
diameter. They are equally round at both ends, and
perfectly white. The females begin to sit as soon as
they have laid their first egg ; so that the nestlings are
usually of different ages. The parent birds attend upon
their brood with great assiduity, and supply them plenti-
fully with mice, shrews, moles, and the young of various
other quadrupeds.

The nestlings of the Brown Owl are easily brought up
by hand, and are very useful in barns and granaries,
being most excellent mousers.

STRTGID.E.

63

SUB-FAMILY IV.

Strigix^.

The Owls 2)roj)er.

Gex. Charac. — Head smooth, with the facial disk very large, subtriangulai
and complete.

Uji^

''\...''^^^.V'

FiS, 25. — THE BARN OWL.

{Strix Jlammea.)

IP W-

The Owls belong'ino' to tliis sub-familv are dis-
tributed tbrougliout most climates. They are strictly-
nocturnal. The softness of their plumage and the
peculiar form of their quills give them a buoyant
and noiseless flighty which enables them to steal upon
their prey unsuspected. They live principally upon
mice and other small quadrupeds^ which they swallow
whole ; the hairs^ bones^ and other indigestible parts
l)eing subsequently disgorged in oval pellets. Some
species live on crustaceous animals. They build
their nests on old towers^ in the roofs of churches,
E 2

64 ACCIPITRES.

the thatcli of barns, or in the hollows of trees. The
female lays from two to five eggs.

The t}qie of this sub-family is —

Tlie Barn Owl {Strix^ Jiammea), sometimes called the
Scrp,ec]i Owl^ commonly met with in the British islands
and generally throughont the Eastern hemisphere. It
is from fonrteen to fifteen inches in length, the females
being slightly larger than the males. The Barn Owl
approaches boldly to the dwelling-places of man, and
seeks for food in the midst of towns and villages, and in
the cultivated fields surrounding them. His chosen
abode is some dark hole or corner of an old building, the
tower of a church, or the roof of a barn, or sometimes a
hollow tree. In this retreat he dozes away the bright
hours, and if driven from his concealment in the day-
time, is so dazzled by the light as to be quite bewildered
and helpless. As evening approaches, his sight becomes
keen enough, and he glides out on noiseless pinions
in search of prey. He may then be seen dashing round
the stacks and buildings in the farm-yard, or skimmmg
over the fields and along the hedgerows, in pursuit of
small animals that are abroad at night. While thus
upon the wmg, he drops suddenly down upon his prey,
seizes it in his claws, and uttering a loud cry or screech,
flies off with it to his nest. In this way rats, mice, and
small animals of all kinds, including young hares and
rabl)its, are captured by this nocturnal marauder. The
Barn Owl also destroys larks and other small birds, and
often catches the moths and beetles so abundant during
summer evenings. His principal food, however, consists
of mice, which abound in stackyards and cornfields.
These are swallowed whole, their bones and other in-
digestible parts being disgorged as pellets, which accumu-
late in the roosting-place of their destroyer. The benefits
these birds confer upon the farmer by destroying vermin
are therefore considerable The nest consists of sticks
and straws, and the number of eggs varies from two
to five.

*'(Trpr/?, strinx, an owl.

PASSERES. 65

ORDER II.

Pas SERES.

The birds belonging- to this order are frequently
termed Insessores^ or Percbers^ seeing that tliey are^
for tlie most part^ expressly adapted for a life
among the branches of trees or bushes, upon which
they perch, and hop from twig to twig. Their feet
are, consequently, more or less constructed for this
purpose. Their legs are of moderate length, and
the toes, usually placed three in front and one
behind, are provided with sharp and slender claws,,
and of sufficient strength to secure the bird firmly
on its perch. This arrangement of the toes is,
however, subject to certain exceptions, as we shall
see when speaking of particular species. There are
other general characters, which, taken in conjunction
with those given above, will, in doubtful cases,
frequently enable us to determine whether a bird
belongs to this order or not. The tarsi are covered
with shield-like horny plates, so disposed that while
in front there are several of these pieces, the back
of the leg is usually covered by a single long shield.
The outer toe of each foot is generally united to
the middle one for a greater or less extent, some-
times only at the base, but occasionally nearly to
the extremity. The claws with which the toes are
armed are either of moderate length or very long
and slender. The wings are well developed, so that
many of the Passerine races fly remarkably well.
The primary quill-feathers in the wings are usually
ten in number, and the number of quill-feathers in
the tail is likewise generally ten.

This Order is divided into the following Tribes.*^
* See " Animal Creation," page 418.

nC) PASSBRES.

TRIBE J.

FiSSIROSTRES.*

The Fissirostral Passerine birds constitute a small,
but very natural group, distinguislied by the
structure of their beak, which is broad at the base,
short, hooked at the tip, and opening with a very
wide gape, extending to beneath, or even beyond,
the eyes, and thus adapted to catch and swallow
insects while on the wing. It comprises two prin-
cipal sections ; the first including those species that
fly by night, — Fissirostres Nodurni ; the other com-
prehending such as seek their food in the daytime, —
Fissirostres Diurni. The first of these sections
embraces the Groatsuckers, or Nightjars ; the second,
the extensive race of Swallows and Swifts.

SUB-TBIBE L

Fissirostres Nocturni. Nocturnal Fissirostres.

The birds belono-ing' to this sub-tribe are re-
markable for the size of their eyes, which are very
large, and easily dazzled by the light of day, though
well fitted to descry objects in the obscurity of the
evening. Then' plumage is generally soft and fleecy,
like that of the Owls; thus enabling them to fly
without noise.

FAMILY I.

Caprimulgid.e. The Goatsuckers.

Gen. Charac. — Bill short, depressed, very broad, gape extending beneath the
eyes ; toes long and rather strong, hind toe united to the base of the inner
toe.

* Fissus, cleft, and rostrum, a beak ; Cleft-beaks.

CAPRIMULGID.l-J.

67

SUB-FAMILY I.

Steatorxin.e.*

The Oil-birds.

Gen CHARAC.-Beak short, generally strong, and curved to the tip, which
is hooked ; the sides are dilated and the gape very wide; the hase of the
bill is covered with projecting plumes and bipectinated bristles.

Fig. 26.— the oiL-BiE;a.
(Steatornis Caripensis.)

The principal localities wliere tliese birds are
kno^^^l to exist are certain caverns on the sea-shore
of the islands of Guadalonpe and Trinidad^ and also
in several parts of South America. Their food
consists of the fruits of a plant called SeniiUa del
GuacharOj upon which they become so excessively
fat that their grease is compared to olive-oil, and,
as such, is -used as an article of food. Their voice
is hoarse and sharp : they avoid the light of day,

* (TTtdrLoi>, steation, /at ; bpvig, ornis, a hird ; Fat-birds.

68 FISSIKOSTRES NOCTURXI.

and only sally from tlieir hiding-places during the
night, or at least after sunset. Their nests are built
on the rocky walls of caverns, in which they rear
their young.

The typical species —

Tlie Gruacharo, or Trinidad Goatsucker [Steatomis*
Caripensis), known in tli(; tropical regions of America as
the " Oil-bird," is about the size of a pigeon. Unlike the
otlier species of Goatsuckers, the Guacharos feed entirely
upon fruits and seeds. For the sake of the oil which they
furnish, numbers of the young are destroyed every year.
The nestlings are immediately opened, and the fat re-
moved from them ; it is afterwards melted in clay pots
and stored up for use. The oil thus obtained is semi-
fluid, transparent, and inodorous, and so pure that it may
be kept more than a year without becoming rancid.
The most noted locality for this oil-harvest is a cavern at
Oaripe, called the Cueva del Guacharo. Into this cave,
as we are told by Humboldt, the Indians enter once a
year, about the festival of St. John. They take with
tliem long poles, with which they destroy all the nests
within reach, aud thus kill many thousands of the young
brood, while the poor Oil-birds, as if to defend their nest-
lings, sail over the heads of their assailants, uttering the
most discordant cries.

This celebrated cavern is pierced in a vertical rock ;
its entrance measures eighty feet in width, and seventy-
two in height, while through its gloomy labyrinths there
runs, far removed from the light of day, a subterranean
torrent. For a* distance of upwards of four himdred feet
the daylight still struggles with the darkness, and the
seeds brought in by the birds to feed their young, but
accidentally dropped by the way, germmate in the scanty
soil of the floor, producing etiolated shoots, which might
be taken for the phantoms of plants banished from the
outer world. Fin-ther in, the loud and discordant cries
of the Guacharos are heard, repeated and increased by
the echoes on every side. The seeds found in the crops
of the young birds are supposed by the Indians to ]wssess
medicinal virtues, and are carefully preserved under the
name of Semilla del Guachai'O.

* (TTtaTiov, steation, /at ; ojjviq, ornis, a bird; Fat-bird.

CAPRIMULGID.^:.

09

SUB-FAMILY IT.

Caprimulgix.e.

The Goatsuckers pro'per.

Gen. Chaeac — Bill short aud weak, with the gape extending under each eye,
extremely broad, and furnished with more or less lengthened bristles ; the
wings long and usually pointed ; the tail more or less lengthened, and round
or graduated, and sometimes forked ; the tarsi more or less short, and
almost clothed throughout with short plumes, or entirely denuded and
scaled ; the toes moderate, with the lateral ones shorter than the middle
toe, and of equal length ; the claws of the middle toe large and pectinated
on the sides, those of the other toes small.

Fig. 27.— the night-jak.
(Cupriniiilffus Europceug.)

Tlie Goatsuckers constitute a very numerous
race^ distributed in all parts of the habitable world.
Tliey are migratory, and generally live in woods, or
on dry tracts of habitable land : they feed on moths
and beetles, which they catch on the wing, either
in the dusk of the evening, or at early da^\Ti, re-
tiring to some dark retreat among the brushwood
E 3

70 FISSIROSTRES NOCTURNI.

during the day. When seizing prey, their mouth
is widely opened, and the long rigid hairs with
which its base is surrounded materially assist in the
capture of insects. The Hight of these birds is
exceedingly rapid, and accompanied by graceful
evolutions similar to those of the Swallow, but per-
formed with even greater ease and facility. Their
eyes are large and of the true nocturnal character.
Although the beak is small, the gape is enormous,
extending below the eyes, and reminding us of the
mouth of a toad ; hence these birds are called by
the French " Crapauds volants." The j^lumage is
full and soft, and beautifully variegated with dots,
bars, dashes, and zig-zag markings, of mingled
grey, brown, fawn-colour, black, and white ; difficult
to describe, and almost as difficult to imitate. Kapid
and abrupt as is the flight of these birds, it is noise-
less, resembling in that respect the flight of the
Owl, although from the form of their wings it is of
a different character.

The Goatsuckers form no nest ; but generally
deposit two eggs on some dry spot beneath the
shelter of ferns and other underwood.

The type of this family —

The European Goatsucker {Caprimulgus* Europceus),
is not uncommon in England ; it is, however, a bird of
passage, retiring to the warm regions of the South in the
autumn, and returning in the month of May. It measures
about ten or eleven uiclies in length, including the tail,
which is rather long. The bill and legs are short and
feeble, so tliat it perches with difficulty, and when resting
on the bough of a tree, jilaces itself lengthways upon the
branch, upon wliicli it crouches, as if fearful of falling
off. The middle anterior toe is considerably longer than
the others, and terminated by a claw singularly toothed,
so as to resemble a comb. The Goatsucker is usually
met with about moors, heaths, and commons ; but it also
frequents woods. ]ts period of activity is the twilight,
when it may be seen hawking after its favourite food,

* Caiyra, a slie-goat ; miihjeo, to milk; Goat-milker.

CAPRIMULGID3]. "71

sweeping swiftly rourid trees frequented by beetles and
moths, which it devours in great numbers. It frequently
emits a sort of whirring sound, resembling the noise made
by a spinning-wheel : hence it is known as the Wheel-
bird in some districts, and in others as the Night-charr^
Night-jar, and Churn Owl. It is likewise called the
Night-haiuk, and the Dor-hawh, from its appetite for
night-flying beetles, called Dors ; and likewise the Fern
Owl, from its frequenting fern brakes. Tlie name Goat-
sucker is derived from its supposed habit of sucking the
milk of goats during the night, a false s\ispicion, which
has doubtless given the bird a bad character in the eyes
of farmers, whilst by the destruction of vast quantities of
'Cockchafers, it is, in reality, one of their best friends.

"When the moon shines bright," says Mr. Watei-ton,
" you may have a fair opportunity of examining the
Goatsucker ; you wdll see it close by the cows, goats, and
sheep, jumping up every now and then under their bellies.
Approach a little nearer ; he is not shy : ' he fears no
danger, for he knows no sin.' See how the nocturnal
flies are tormenting the kine, and with what dexterity
he springs up and catches them as fast as they alight on
the belly, legs, and udders of the poor animals. Observe
how quietly they stand, and how sensible they seem of
his good offices ; for they neither strike at him, nor hit
him with their tail, nor tread on him, nor try to drive
him away as an uncivil intruder. Were you to dissect
him, and inspect his stomach, you w^ould find no milk
there ; it is full of the flies that have been annoying the
herd." Doubtless the same habit thus noted by Mr.
Waterton must have been observed by the ancients in
southern Europe, who, mistaking the object of the bird,
bestowed on it its vernacular name.

The cries uttered by many species of these birds
are very peculiar. " A Goatsucker inhabits Demerara
(about the size of an English wood-owl), whose voice is
so remarkable that, when once heard, it is not easily to
be forgotten. A stranger would never believe it to be
the cry of a bird, but would say it was the departing
voice of a midnight-murdered victim, or the last wailing
of poor Niobe for her children, before she was turned to
stone. Suppose a person in hopeless sorrow, beginning
with a high loud note, ' ha, ha ; ha, ha ; ha, ha, ha ;' each

ri

FISSIEOSTRES NOCTUKNI.

note lower and lower, till the last is scarcely heard,
})ausing a moment or two between each exclamation, and
you will have some idea of the moaning of the Great
Goatsucker of Demerara. Other species articulate some
words so distinctly, that they have received their names
from the sentences they utter, and absolutely bewilder a
stranger on his arrival in their vicinity. One sits down
close to your door, or Hies and alights three or four yards

Fig. 28. — chuck will's widow.

are

before you as you walk along the road, crying, who
fjou^ who, who are you. Another bids you work away,
ivork, work, vmrk away. A third cries moui'iifully,
' Willy -come-(jo, Willy, Willy, Willy-come-go ;' and a fourth

CAPEIMULGID.E.

73

tells you to Whip 2)oor Will, Whip poor Will, in tones
wonderfully clear and startling." — Waterton.

The apjjendecl figure represents another of these voci-
ferous birds, named from its cry " Chuck Will's widow '^

The eggs of the Goatsucker are deposited in a depres-
sion or cavity on the surface of the ground, under the
shelter of a bush, generally without any attempt at a
nest. They are usually two in number, of a white
colour, clouded with bluish-grey.

74

FISSIROSTRES NOCTURNI.

SUB-FAMILY III.

PODAGIUX.E.

The Podagers.

Gen. Charac. — Bill much flattened, curved, and compressed at the sides of
the tip, which is hooked; the gape is furnished with stiff hairs, as in the
Goatsuckers ; the wings are long and pointed, and the tail broad ; the tarsi
are more or less plumed, or, when devoid of feathers, covered in front with
transverse scales ; the inner toe is generally longer than the outer, and both
inner and outer toes are more or less united to the middle one, which is ihe
largest of all, and armed with a large serrated claw.

'"^n^^M.i^^

Fig. 29.— golld's podagre.
{Foduger Gouhlii.)

The Podagers are met witli in tlie warmer parts
of South. America and Australia^ where they fre-
quent fields and moist places^ usually in pairs,
although they have sometimes been observed in
troops of a hundred together, chasing insects in
broad daylight. The female deposits two eggs on
the bare ground, without any kind of nest. As an
example of the race we have selected —

Gould's Podager [Podager Gouldii).

HIRUNDINID^. 75

SUB -TRIBE 11.

FissiEOSTRES DiuRNi. Dlumal Flssirostres.

The Fissirostral birds tliat fly by day are at once
distiiiguisliable from tlie nocturnal species by the
closeness of their plumage, which is quite devoid of
that fleecy appearance so eminently characteristic of
the preceding tribe.

FAMILY I.

HiRUNDiNiD.E. The Swalloivs.

Gex. Chakac. — Bill short and weak, very broad at the base, and suddenly
compressed towards the tip ; the wings are long, narrow, and pointed ; the
tail forked ; and the tarsi very short and feeble. This group comprises the
Swifts and the Swallows.

These birds are remarkable for their powers of
flight and insectivorous appetite. Their legs are
short, and comparatively feeble ; but the toes are
furnished with sharp hooked claws, constructed for
the purpose of clinging to walls or the sides of
rocks. In the Swifts, the toes are all directed
forwards ; in the true Swallows, the hind toe is
reversible. The wings are long and pointed, and
the quill-feathers of a firm texture ; the general
plumage is close-set, smooth, sometimes polished
and glossy. The beak is small, depressed, broad at
the base, and with a wide ga^oe. Their food, con-
sisting of the smaller species of insects, is always
taken on the wing, and they often completely fill
their throat with insect prey, so as to distend it like
a pouch, doubtless in order that their nestlings may
have a full supply at each visit. The whole of the
active existence of these birds is passed in the air.

VG

nSSIEOSTEES DIURNI.

They skim along witli marvellous rapidity, and
quarter their ground over meadows, lakes, and
rivers, wheel round barns and steeples, and dash
along apparently as untired when evening closes as
when they began their aerial exercise with the first
dawn of day. They feed and drink on the wing,
and pursue each other in sportive chase, performing
the most rapid and beautiful evolutions.

^/^^^i^^;<;}^;.jr., ^^

HIRLNDIXrn.E.

//

SUB-FAMILY I.

Cypselix.e.

The Swifts.

Gen. Charac. — Bill short, depressed, broad at the base, the sides suddenlj'
compressed to the tip, and the margins inflected ; the nostrils large and
longitudinal on each side of the culmen ; the wings extremely long and.
curved ; the tarsi short and weak ; the toes short, thick, and armed with
short, strong, and much-curved claws ; the hind toe usually directed
forwards.

,1 ljf.^^\']]

•; i'^^O

Fig. 30. — the swift.
Cypxelug opus.)

The Swifts are all birds of migratory habits.
They pass most of their days in the air, for which
their slender forms and powerful wings are ad-
mirably adapted. Their flight is rapid, performed
in lengthened sweeps, or in extensive curves, with
marvellous ease and grace. The height to which
they ascend is regulated by the state of the at-
mosphere. On fine days they fly in numbers
together, at a great elevation ; but during gloomy

78 FISSIROSTRES DIURNI.

or damp weather perform their evohitions closer to
the ground, or they sometimes skim the sm^face of
lakes and rivers, in pursuit of their food, which
consists entirely of insects. They usually rest and
pass the night in a hole in some high building or
lofty tree, and in such places they also rear their
young. Their nest is composed of straw, and similar
materials, cemented together with a glutinous
secretion, furnished by certain glands that are
peculiar to birds of this sub-family. The eggs are
usually two in number.

The Common Swift {Cypselus* apus) usually arrives
in Europe about tlie beginning of May. It leaves us
again generally about the middle of August, so that its
stay in Britain hardly exceeds three months. On the
continent of Africa these birds are seen as far south as
the Cape of Good Hope, but their proper whiter residence
appears to be between the tropics. Their migratory
instincts are truly wonderful. They will often return
after an absence of eight or nine months, and a voyage
of several thousand miles, to the very same spot where
they built their nests and reared their young the year
before. On its arrival, the Swift takes up its abode in
holes and other sheltered places, in church steeples,
towers, ruins, or under the eaves of houses. From these
nooks and corners it dashes forth in fine weather to
wheel about in the air with amazing rajiidity in pursuit
of insects, accompanying its headlong tiiglit with loud
screaming cries ; but when the day is unfavourable, and
es[)ecially when there is a high wind, the Swifts, not-
withstanding their power of wing, usually keep close
within their snug retreats.

The voice of the Swift is not very pleasing. " He
has no roundelay ; he neither warbles nor carols, he does
not even twitter. His whole melody is a scream, un-
musical, but most joyous ; a squeak would be a better
name, but that, instead of conveying a notion that it
results fi'om jmin, it is full of rollicking delight. Some
compare it to the noise made by the sharpeidng of a saw :
to me it seems such an expression of pent-up joy as little

* icvtpt\o(;, kupselos ; the Sand-Mar tin.

HIRUNDINID.l^. 79

cliildren would make if unexpectedly released from
school, furnished with wings, and flung up into the air
for a game at hide-and-seek among the clouds. Such
soarings aloft, such chasings round the pinnacles of the
church-tower and the gables of the farm-houses ; no
wonder that they cannot contain themselves for joy." *
The food of these birds consists entirely of insects, which
they capture and devour on the wing. They do not at
once gulp down their prey, but, as it usually consists of
gnats, midges, and other compressible species, they collect
a nuniber in their mouths before swallowing them. The
insects caught for the nourishment of their young are
stored up in the same way.

, Their nest is composed of fragments of straw, dry grass,
and bits of rag, with a few feathers, and these materials
are cemented together by means of their glutinous saliva.
The eggs are usually two in number, but vary from two
to four. The young are hatched about the end of June,
and do not leave the nest till the end of July; during
all this period the 2:)arents feed them with great care.
After the young bii^ls have come out they are left to
provide for themselves, which they are well able to do,
and in the course of a short time are strong enough to
commence their long journey into unknown regions.
The type of this sub-family —

The Alpine Swift {Cypselus Melha) can scarcely be
called a British species, although it has been occasionally
killed in this country. Its true home is in the Swiss
Alps and other mountain-ranges in the South of Europe.
Its flight is more rapid than that of the Common Swift.
These birds, indeed, may be said to perform all the
functions of life on the wing, except sleeping and incuba-
tion ; and even when they rest, it is against the perpen-
dicular face of a rock or wall, to which their four toes,
all ]:>ointing forwards, enable them to cling.

From the earliest dawn to sundown, and even later,
this Swift is constantly hawking in the air, through
which its various journeys must, at the most moderate
computation, amount to many hundreds of miles in a day.

* See •' British Birds and their Haunts," by the Eev. C. A. Johns.

80

FISSIROSTRES DIURNI,

SUB-FAMJLY J J.

HiRUXDINIX.E.

The Swallo

ws 2)ro2)er.

Gen. Charac. — Bill short, more or less depressed, with the ^ape '^f ry wide,
and the sides gradually compressed towards the tip ; the nostrils basal,
lateral, and rounded ; the wings lengthened, with the first quill the longest ;
the tail more or less forked ; the tarsi short, generally naked and scutel-
lated ; the toes usually long and slender ; and the 'claws moderate and
slightly curved.

-^ssatv'r^'

Fig. 31. — the swallow.
' (Ilirundo rustica.)

Numerous species of birds belonging to this sub-
family are distributed throughout most parts of both
hemispheres^ migrating from clime to clime, in
search of their insect-food. When about to remove
to a country of more genial temperature, they collect
in immense flocks, and may be observed congre-
gating upon trees, or on the roofs of houses, and
other high buildings, before their departure ; at
other times they frequent the neighbourhood of
lakes, rivers, and ponds, over which they fly in small

HIRUNDINID.E. 81

parties, skimming rapidlj in extensive sweeps near
the sm-face of the water, and suddenly changing
their course backwards and forwards, being all the
time busily engaged in capturing the insects upon
which they live. Sometimes they may be seen in
the streets of towns, or ranging over plains, fields,
and gardens, while at intervals they repose, after
their exertions, upon the tops of buildings, or upon
the branches of trees. Their nests are usually
composed of clay or mud, mixed up with straws.
They are variously shaped, and generally attached
to the exterior of houses or in chimneys, or the
interior of hollow trees. Some species construct
their nests in holes in the ground, in which case
they consist entirely of loose, dry grass, lined with
feathers. The eggs are generally five or six in
number.

The migration of the Swallows has now been set
beyond a doubt by actual observation, made both
on our own shores and on those of the Mediter-
ranean, where they are seen taking their departure
for the warm regions of Africa, in the autumn, and
also making their way back in spring. In crossing
the sea, they usually fly singly or in small parties of
two or three, and it is remarkable that they arrive
on the further side in a state of exhaustion, ap-
parently as great as that of other birds of passage,
whose power of wing is far inferior. The Channel
fishermen state, that in hazy weather the Swallow^s
very frequently alight in their boatsj when they are
a little way out at sea, so completely fatigued that
it is Tvith some difficulty that they muster strength
to fly from one end of the boat to the other, when
an attempt is made to seize them. In fine calm
weather they are often seen to descend upon the
smooth surface of the water with their wings widely
extended, rising again after a short time seemingly
much refreshed by their partial bath.

The type of the race —

82 FISSIROSTRES DIURNI.

The Chimney Swallow {Hirundo ruMica) * is one of
the British s})C'cies, It is very abundant in all parts of
Europe during the summer, and in some parts of the
Mediterranean district a few individuals remain during
the winter. They arrive in this country early in April.
On reaching its summei" quarters the Swalh^w usually
selects a spot for its place of abode where the habitations
of man lie in the vicinity of water, for, in common with
a considerable majority of the members of this family,
it has a great fondness for skimming over the surfece of
large ponds, lakes, and streams. The partiality exhibited
for human habitations by this bird is very remarkable,
and it is a no less curious circumstance that of the two
familiar British species, one, the Swallow, frequents
detached country places, villages, and farm-houses, whilst
the other, the Martin, takes up its abode in towns, so
that Linnaeus denominated the two species If. rustica and
H. urhica.

Although the Chimney Swallow has received its most
general name from the somewhat peculiar j^osition in
which it frequently builds its nest, it by no means con-
fines itself to chimneys, but builds readily in almost any
suitaljle sheltered i)osition. Thus the disused shafts of
mines and the sides of old wells are sometimes resorted
to. Occasionally it will build in the roof of a barn or
shed, attaching its nest to the rafters, or in a garret or
passage, to which it may find easy access. In almost
all cases it selects a point where some projection from
the wall, "some coign of vantage ground," forms a
buttress, on which its nest may be supported. The
nest is constructed principally of mud or soft earth,
collected in small pellets from the edges of ponds and
other wet i:)laces. These are carried home in the bird's
bill, and plastered on to the spot selected for the nest.
Fresh pellets are then brought and added, together with
numerous straws and leaves of grasses, until the whole
is gradually moulded into the form of an open saucer,
attached by one side to the wall of the chimney, or other
j^lace of retreat. A lining of feathers is then put into
the nest, and upon these the eggs are laid. The eggs
vary from four to six in number, and are of a white
colour, speckled with ash-grey and dark red. Two
* Hirundo, a Swallow.

HIRUNDINID^.

88

broods are reared in the course of tlie summer : of these
the first is usually ready to fly by the end of June, and
the second by the end of August.

The Swallows have a short modulated strain, repeated
at intervals, always ending in a shrill note rapidly shaken.
Early in the morning they may be heard twittering from
the " clay-built shed," or from the chimney-top, and pre-
vious to the autumnal migration, when groups collect
together, they are voiceful, as if debating the great event
of their journey, whether the due time has come, or the
season will admit of linuferinfj; a little longer.

^^'l^>< MJr

84 TENUIROSTRES.

TRIBE II.

Tenuirostkes.

In this division of the Passerine, or Perching
Birds, the bill is of varied length and shape, but
always slender, with the tip of the upper mandible
entire, and usually acute. The tarsi are short ; the
toes generally long, especially the hind toe, which
is strong, and armed with a prominent claw.

FAMILY I.

IJpupiD^. The Hoopoes.

'Gen. Chabac. — Bill lenj^thened, slender, curved or straight for its entire
length ; the sides compressed to the tip, which is acute ; the nostrils basal
and rather small; the wings long and rounded; the tail more or less
long and rounded or even ; the tarsi strong and usually short ; the toes long
and strong ; the outer toe more or less united at its base, the hind toe long ;
the claws strong, long, and curved.

These birds are peculiar to the Eastern' hemi-
sphere. They are found in Europe, Asia, and
Africa, and are migratory at certain seasons. They
prefer low and damp situations that border woods
and forests ; in such places they may be met with
searching on the ground for insects and worms.
They also seek for caterpillars on the trunks of
trees, or more frequently among the foliage ; and
while in search of these devastators may frequently
be seen hanging from a branch by their feet as they
reach them from the leaves. The nest is generally
placed in a hole of some decayed tree, or occasion-
ally in a crevice of a wall or rock ; it is constructed
of dry grass, and is usually lined internally with
feathers and other soft and warm materials. The
female deposits four or five eggs, ©r more.

This family includes the Hoopoes and Plume-
birds.

UPUPID.E.

85

SUB-FAMILY I.

Upupin.e.

TJoe Hoopoes proper

Gex. Chaeac. — Bill long, curved or straight from the base; the culmeii
keeled, and the sides generally compressed suddenly at the base towards the
tip, which is entire and acute ; the nostrils basal, small, and mostly covered
by a membranous scale ; the wings long and rounded ; the tail more or less
long, graduated, and even ; the tarsi generally short and strong ; the toes
long, the outer toe united at its base, the hind toe long and strong ; the
claws long, strong, curved, and acute.

f ^

Fig. 32.— the hoopoe
{Upupa epops.)

\.-

The representative of this sub -family, —

The Common Hoopoe (U^mpa cpoiys), breeds in most
parts of Europe, and is sometimes a visitor in the British
Ishmds. These birds are generally met with in woods in
the vicinity of marshes, where they seek their food. They
walk and run upon the ground, when thus engaged, with
great facility. In the neighbourhood of Bordeaux,
Hoopoes are met with in great numbers upon an extensive
range of marshy ground occupied by pollard willows grown

P

85

TENUIROSTRES.

fur the sake of their long shoots. The rotting siuniiiits of
the aged tniiiks of these trees are visited by flocks, which
tind in them an abundant sujiply of insects. The nest
is made of a few stalks of grass mixed with feathers, and
is placed in the hole of a tree ; the eggs, six or eight in
number, are of a pale lavender-grey colour. The Hoopoe
likewise feeds on grubs and worms ; hence, in Egypt, it
follows the retreat of the Nile, where the neighbouring
})lains swarm w4th insect life ; it also frequents ploughed
lands and ptusture ground, like the Crows. Great numbers
are constantly to be found about the towns and villages
of Egypt, v/liere they become very familiar with man, and
])uild theii' nests in the immediate vicinity of his habita-
tions.

UPUPID.K

87

SUB-FAMILY

Epimachine.

II.

The Plained Birds.

Gen. Chakac. — Bill more or less lengthened, slender, and arched to the tips,
which are acute ; the nostrils lateral, and placed in a broad basal groove,
which is mostly concealed by the projecting plumes of the forehead, leaving
the opening small and exposed ; wings moderate and rounded ; tail of various
lengths, sometimes even or graduated at its end ; tarsi more or less long,
robust, and usually covered with broad scales in front ; toes long and strong,
with the outer toe united at its base, the hind toe very long, strong, and
armed with a powerful claw.

\ "

Fig. 33.— the twelve-threaded EPiiiACHVS.
(Epinuichns ulbitg.)

Tlie entire island of New Guinea, situated almost
beneath tlie equator, is covered with one vast forest,
composed of trees which from their stately dimen-
sions are well calculated to strike the spectator with

* kTTifxaxoQ, epimachos ; open to attack, i. e. defenceless.
F 2

88 TENUIEOSTRES.

astonislimcnt, some of tlicm rising to the stupendous
lieig'lit of a hundred and fifty feet^, an elevation to
which the circumference of their trunks is quite
proportionate. Shrubs and bushes have no exist-
ence among this exuberant vegetation; the very
creepers are gigantic ; the lianas^ resembhng enor-
mous vines, cUmb to the summits of the largest
trees, twining around them like serpents, and inter-
lacing their stems among the branches. Tlie bril-
liant tints that adorn these virgin forests constitute
by no means their least striking feature. All hues
of gi-een are intermixed with flowers of ample dimen-
sions, diversified with every shade of colour, and
fruits no less remarkable from the singularity of
their shape. Amid this wilderness, the lofty palm-
trees are lost beneath the festoons of parasitic plants
that wreathe around them, and enormous Mimosas
bend beneath the weight of Orchids and gorgeous
Epidendrons. It is in the midst of these solitudes,
screened by the foliage from the intense heat of the
sun, that the Epimachi are found in company with
flocks of Parakeets, Crowned Pigeons, Turtle-doves,
and Birds of Paradise, even more splendidly deco-
rated than they themselves. The Plumed Birds, in-
deed, resemble the Birds of Paradise in many parti-
culars, more especially in having some of their fea-
thers greatly developed, and also in the splendour
of their plumage ; they differ from them, however,
in the shape of their bill, which is considerably
attenuated. Most of the species are indigenous to
New Guinea ; but unfortunately, owing to the bar-
barism of the natives, their habits and manners are
as yet unrecorded by naturalists. One species, found
in Australia, is kno^vvTi to ascend the stems of trees
in the manner of the creeping birds, and only exer-
cises its powers of wing in flying from tree to tree,
or to short distances in the forest.

We select as an example of these elegancies of
creation —

The Twelve-threaded Epimachus {Epmiachus alhus).

PEOlVrEROPID.E.

89

FAMILY IL

Promeropid.e.

Tim Sun-hirds.

Gv.'s. Charac— Bill more or less lengthened, slender, and curved throughout
its whole length ; the nostrils bare, and covered by a scale ; the wings mode-
rate ; the tail of variovTS lengths, even or graduated ; the toes moderate, and
armed with cui-ved and acute claws.

Fig. 31.— the sun-bieb.

Tlie birds belonging to this family are remarkable
for their long slender bills, wliicli are capable of

90 TENUIKOSTRES.

})eiietrating into the nectary of flowers^ from which
they principally derive their subsistence. Their
tongue is extensible and bifid at the tip, thus
enabling them more easily to procure their honied
food ; insects, however, and perhaps soft fruits, con-
stitute a considerable portion of their diet. In the
breeding season the plumage of the male glows wdth
metallic colours, approaching in splendour those of
the Humming-birds, which indeed the members of
this family seem to represent on the continents of
the Old World, of which they are exclusively natives.
They resemble the Humming-birds in their man-
ners, and almost rival them in the brilliancy of their
appearance as they hover on quivering wings poised
in the air, ^vhile they bury their long slender beaks
in the corolla, from which they sip the sweets.

" It was at Singapore, ^^ says Mr. Arthur Adams,
'' that I first had the pleasure of seeing these tiny
paragons of the East ; they are ethereal, gay, and
sprightly in their movements;^ flitting briskly from
flower to flower, and assuming a thousand lovely
and agreeable attitudes. As the sunbeams glitter
on their bodies, they sparkle like so many precious
stones, and exhibit at every turn a variety of bright
and evanescent hues. As they hover round the
honey-laden blossoms, they ^vibrate their tiny pinions
so rapidly as to cause a slight whirring sound, but
not so loud as the humming noise produced by the
Trochilidce (Humming-birds). Occasionally they
may be seen, clinging by their feet and tail, busily
eno^a^ed in riflino; the blossoms of the trees. I well
remember a certain dark -leaved tree with scarlet
flowers that especially courted the attention of the
Sun-birds, and about its blossoms they continually
darted with eager and vivacious movements. With
this tree they seemed particularly delighted, cling-
ing to the slender twigs, and coquetting with the
flowers, thrusting in their slender beaks, and probing
with their brush-like tongues for insects and nectar,
hanging suspended by their feet, throwing back

PROMEROPID.E. 91

their little glossy lieads^ chasing each other on giddy
wing, and Hirting and twittering, the gayest of the
gay. Some were emerald-green, some vivid violet,
and others yellow with a crimson wing."

Their nest is usually suspended, and of a hemi-
spherical form, having generally an opening on one
side, nearer the bottom than the top, with a small
roof over it; it is composed of dry fibres mixed
with moss, and lined with down ^4thih. The exte-
rior portion is sometimes kept together by means of
a thick spider^ s web, which the bird uses as a frame-
work whereunto the various materials composing
'the nest are attached. The eggs are generally two
in number.

This family comprises the True Sun-birds and
the Guit-o'uits.

92

TEXUIKOSTRES.

SUB-FAMILY /.

Pkomekopin.e.

Hie San-birds j^t'oper.

EN Chauac. — Bill more or less curved, with the sides compressed to the
tip, which is acute, and the lateral margin sometimes finely serrated ; the
nostrils basal, and the opening closed hy a membranous scale ; the wings
moderate ; the tail more or less long, with the middle feathers sometimes
prolonged beyond the others ; the tarsi usually short ; the toes moderate,
the outer toe rather longer than the inner, and united at its base ; the claws
moderate, curved, and acute.

Fig. 35.— the eed-breasted soui-.manga.
( Clnvyris Senegal en six )

These sliowy birds are found tlirougliout the con-
tinent of Africa^ as well as in India and the adjacent
islands. They are generally seen upon the upper
twigs and smaller branches of trees and bushes ;
hopping quickly about, and moving their wings in a
tremulous manner while searching the blossoms ; or
occasionally hovering on the wing before flowers,
engaged in the same occupation. Spiders also form

PROMEROPID^. 93

a portion of their subsistence ; tliese tlie bird drags
from tlieir biding-places while fluttering in the air^
and will occasionally snap at an insect whilst flying.
We have selected as the representative of this bril-
liant group —

The Eed-hreasted Soiii-manga [Cinnyris Senegaknsis).

Another species represented in the tabular view, —

The Famous Creeper (Nectarima famosa), called also
the Malachite Sun-bird, is an inliabitant of the Ca2:>e of
Good Hope, where it remains throughout the year, and
as it is in tlie habit of frequenting gardens, soon becomes
familiar with the proprietitrs. Sometimes these lovely
bhds may be seen in flocks of forty or fifty, congregating
upon the branches of a favourite tree, and amusing them-
selves among its blossoms. The male bird, when dressed in
full nuptial costume, is nearly double the size of any other
species of this sub-family, often exceeding nine inches in
length. The whole of its upper surface is rich golden
green, marked with a reddish bronze. The feathers of the
throat and forehead are of the same hue, but of so deep a
tone that they appear at first sight to be velvety black.
Whenever the bhd moves, even by the act of respiration,
waves of blight hues seem to ripple on its surface, caused
by the peculiar disposition of the feathers, which are black,
and only coloured at their extremities. The wings and
tail are black, and the secondaries and coverts are edged
with green and violet, Avhile a tuft of bright yellow feathers
under each shoulder still further enlivens this gorgeous
costume. The female is much smaller than her mate, of
a dull olive-brown, except the exterior feathers of her
tail, which are tinged with white. The brilliant adorn-
ments of the Sun-birds belong, as a general rule, only to
the male sex, and even in the male the nuptial plumage
has but a temporary existence, becoming developed only
at the commencement of the breeding season, and being
lost at the moult which follows the rearmg of the young.
At all other seasons the males are nearly as simply clothed
as their mates. The nest of the Malachite Sun-bird is
composed of very fine fibres, interwoven and lined with
soft cotton}^ down found on the seed-vessels of many plants,
and ingeniously set round with various lichens, so as to
E :3

94 TENUIROSTEES.

give it a close resemljlance to tlie tree in wliicli it is placed.
One species has even been known to make a thick spieler's
web the foundation of its domicile, and to cover it with
little bits of moss, lichens, paper, cloth, and all kinds of
miscellaneous substances, so as entirely to destrijy its nest-
like appearance, and make it look like a chance bundle of
scraps among the branches.

" My house in Colombo," says Sir James Emerson
Tennent, " as is usual in the East, was surrounded by a
verandah, up which crept, in trojiical profusion, several
species of Passiflora ; to the flowers of these came the
various JSTectariniae for their morning and evening meals,
rarely appearing in the heat of the day. They hovered
about the starry flowers, thrusting in their curved bills,
in search of the minute insects on which they feed; occa-
sionally they would fly into the verandah and seize a
small spider from its web, or from the crevices of the
walls ; then they would betake themselves to the passion-
flowers, or to the branches of a pomegranate close by,
where they plumed themselves and uttered a pleasing song.
If two happened to come to the same flower — and from
their numbers this has often occurred — a battle always
ensued, which ended in the vanquished bird retreating from
the spot with shrill ^^iping cries, while the conqueror would
take up his position upon a flower or stem, and swinging
his little body to and fro till his coat of burnished steel
gleamed and glistened in the sun, pour out his note of
triumph. All this time the wings were expanded and
closed alternately, every jerk of the body in iV. Asiatica
and iV^. Latenia disclosing the brilliant yellow plumelets
on either side of the breast."

PROMEROJ'ID.i:

9-5

C<j:rebin.e.

>S'

UB-FAMILY II.

The Guit-guits.

Gen. Chahac— Bill longer or shorter than the head, sometimes curved through-
out its length, or straight and acutely conical, the base broad, and the sides
compressed, with the tip usually emarginated ; the nostrils basal and lateral,
and jjrotected by a hard scale ; the wings long and rather pointed;- the tail
short and mostly even ; the tarsi short ; the toes moderate, slender, and the
outer united at its base.

/ \U$).

^i>^><i

Fig. 36.— the blue guit-guix,
(Ccereba ci/aneu.)

These birds are natives of tlie warmer parts of
South America^ where they are usually seen among
flowers, searching for small insects and honied juices,
which they are able to extract by means of their
tongue. Their nests are suspended from the ends
of slender branches, and are sometimes in the form
of a lengthened pear or chemist^s retort, terminated
by a long tube that bends towards the ground. This
beautiful nest is composed of dried grass and slender

96 TENUIROSTRES.

fibres. Otlier birds belonging to this sub -family build
their nests after a different fashion^ but with the same
admirable skill in their construction. The Carthiola,
for example, suspends its nest from the ends of the
flexible branches of trees that hang over the middle
of a stream. The nest is in the form of an ostrich^s
aggj composed of dried moss and dried grass ex-
teriorly, but lined internally with cotton and the
down of plants. The entrance is on the under side,
which faces the water ; and the interior is divided
into two compartments, one of which forms a sort of
antechamber leading to the larger division, wherein
the female deposits her eggs, which are thus securely
protected from the attacks of snakes and other
destroyers.

The type of this sub-family is —

The Black and Blue Creeper {Ccereba cyanea), so called
from its feathers being deeply and gorgeously dyed with
azure, verditer, and velvet-black, arranged in Ijold and
striking contrast. This beautifully coloured species is an
inhabitant of Cayenne, Guiana, and other neighbouring
localities. It is about the size of a common Sparrow, and
frequents the various flowering trees and shrubs of its
native land. The nest is pensile, and neatly woven, upon
the extremity of some slender twig, which sways to and
fro. Its shape resembles that of a Jargonelle pear, the
lower extremity being produced into a long tube, with the
mouth below, and the eggs placed in the upper dilated
portion. The birds of tliis sub-family are gregarious, de-
lighting to associate in large flocks, and haunting flower-
bearing plants for the purpose of feeding on the sweet
nectar and tiny insects found within the blossoms. In
feeding, they thrust their long bill and tongue to the very
bottom of the flower-bells, much after the maimer of bees.

TROCHILID^.

FAMILY III.
Trochilid.e. The Humming -birds.

Gex. Chakac — BUI generally long, slender, straight, or curved, usually
rounded, and the tip acute ; the nostrils are basal, and covered by a large
scale, which is sometimes plumose j the wings are generally long and of
various forms ; the tarsi very short and generally slender ; the toes long and
slender, the lateral toes united at their base, hind toe moderate, and fur-
nished with a more or less lengthened claw.

3/. — THE LOXG-TAILED HCMMIXG-BI KD.

{Trochilus longicauda.)

98 TENUIKOSTRES.

The Humming-birds^ some of wliicli are the
smallest of the feathered tribes, are peculiar to the
New World, in the tropical parts of which they
abound, adorning the gardens, fields, and woods,
and even the mountain-side to a considerable height,
with their swiftly-glancing, fairy-like forms, and
brilliant, sparkling colours. Hovering in the air,
with its wings in such rapid motion as to be quite
invisible or only apparent like a grey mist on each
side of the bird, the little Humming-bird buries its
long bill in the interior of a flower, and then pro-
truding its forked tongue, readily seizes the little
beetles and other insects that are attracted by the
nectar. While thus occupied, the rapidly-vibrating
wings produce a humming sound ; whence the origin
of their name. Some of the species capture flies on
the wing", by taking up a pos-t of observation upon
the tip of a dead branch or twig, and flying off in
pursuit of their prey as soon as it comes in sight.

Wherever a creeping vine opens its clusters, or
wherever a tree-flower blooms, these little fairies
may be seen. In the garden or in the woods, over
the water, everywhere, they are darting about.
Sometimes they are seen chasing each other in sport
with a rapidity of flight and intricacy of path that
the eye can scarcely follow, or, circling round and
round, they rise high in mid-air, and then dart off
like sparkles of light to some distant attraction.
Now perched upon a little twig, they dress their
plumes, and seem to delight in the dazzling hues of
their glowing breasts ; then starting off, they skim
leisurely along, stopping capriciously to kiss the
coquetting flowers. Often two meet in mid-air, and
fight furiously, their crests and the feathers upon
their throats erected and blazing, and altogether
pictures of the most violent rage. Sometimes they
may be seen battling with large black bees that fre-
quent the same flowers, and may be supposed often
to interfere provokingly. Like lightning, the little
heroes come down, and again and again renew the

TROCHILID.E. 99

attack, until tlieir anger lias expended itself by its
own fury, or until the bee, roused from its apathy,
puts forth powers that drive the invader from the
field.

The domestic architecture of the Humming-birds
is amongst the most interesting of the many singular
features in their liistory. In form and size the nests
vary much in different species, and a similar difference
exists in the situations where they are placed. Some
of these fairy cradles are not larger than the half of
a walnut-shell, and such coracle-shaped structures
are amongst the neatest and most beautiful. The
members of the genus Trochilus and their allies
exhibit the greatest ingenuity, not so much in the
construction of their nests as in the lavish decoration

Fig. 38.— nest of humming-bibd.

of their outer walls. With the utmost skill they fasten
to the exterior morsels of flat lichen, the larger pieces
in the middle, and the smaller on the part attached
to the branch. Now and then a pretty feather is
intertwined or fastened to the outer side, the stem
being always so disposed that the feather stands out
beyond the surface. These little cup-shaped nests
are frequently placed on the bifurcation of some
horizontal branch near the ground, or, at other times,
higher up towards the summit of the bush in which
they are built.

100 TENUIROSTRES.

" The Humming-birds in Jamaica/' says Lady
Emmcline Stuart Wortley, "are lovely little creatures,
and wonderfully tame and fearless of tlie approach of
man. One of these charming feathered jewels had
built its delicate nest close to one of the walls of the
garden belonging to the house where we were
staying. The branch, indeed, of the beautiful little
shrub in which the fairy nest was suspended almost
intruded into the walk, and, every time we sauntered
by, there was much danger of sweeping against this
projecting branch, with its precious charge, and
doing it some injury, as very little would have de-
molished the exquisite fabric. In process of time
two lovely little pear-shaped eggs appeared, and,
while we were there, we had the great pleasure of
seeing the minute living gems themselves disclosed,
looking like two very small bees. The mother bird
allowed us to look closely at her nest and to inspect
her little nurslings, when she was flying about near,
without appearing in the least disconcerted or
alarmed. I never saw so tame or so bold a little
pet. But she did not allow the same liberties to be
taken by every one unchecked. One day, as Sir C.
was walking in the pretty path beside which the
fragile nest was delicately suspended amid sheltering
leaves, he paused in order to look at its Lilliputian
inhabitants. While thus engaged, he felt a sharp
rapping on the crown of his hat, which considerably
surprised him. He looked round to ascertain from
whence the singular and unexpected attack pro-
ceeded, but nothing was to be seen. Almost think-
ing he must have been mistaken, he continued his
survey, when a much sharper and louder rat-tat-tat-
tat-tat seemed to demand his immediate attention,
and a little to jeopardize the perfect integrity and
preservation of the fabric in question. Again he
looked round, far from pleased with such extra-
ordinary impertinence, when what should he see but
the beautiful, delicate Humming-bird, with ruffled
feathers and fiery eyes, who seemed by no means

TROCHILID.E.

101

inclined to let liim off without a furtlier infliction of
sharp taps and admonitory raps from her fairy beak.
8he looked like a little fury in miniature, a winged
Xantippe. These pointed attentions apprised him
that his company was not desired or acceptable. As
to me and V., the darling little pet did not mind us
in the least. She allowed us to watch her to our
heart's content, and rather appeared to like our
society, and to have an air of saying, ^ Do you think
I manage it w^ell, eh ?' '^

These beautiful birds are divisible into tlu'ee sub-
famiHes, named respectively the Wedge-tailed, the
Curve-billed, and the Straight-billed Humming-
birds.

102

TENUIROSTRES.

Grypix.^:.

SUB-FAMILY 7.

The WeJye-tailed Humming -birds.

Gen. Charac. — Bill more or less long, slender, and generally curved through-
out its whole length, with the culmen keeled at the base, and then rounded
to the tip, which is acute, the lateral margins dilated and overlapping the
lower mandible ; the nostrils basal and covered by a scale ; the wings long
and pointed ; the tail long, broad, and generally euneated ; the tarsi
short and slender ; the toes long, slender, and sometimes united at their
bases, the hind toe more or less long and slender ; the anterior claws long
and slender, and that of the hind toe sometimes very small.

/

~^r*'

==*-.^a^

Fig. 39.— pretrecs's hermit.
(Pkcetoniis Fretrei.)

These Humming-birds are remarkable among
tlieir glittering race for being destitute of metallic
brilliancy, and, as tlieir common name of ^^ hermit ^^
implies, for affecting dark and gloomy situations.
They constitute perhaps the only group of the
family which frequent the interior of the forests, and
there obtain their insect food, some from the under
side of the leaves of the great trees, while others

TROCHILID.E. 103

assiduously explore their stems in search of such
lurking insects as may be concealed in the bark. It
is said that spiders constitute the principal food of
many species of this group ; and the structure of
their bills seems admirably adapted for the capture
of prey of this description. To individualize by
name any particular country in South America in
which these birds are found is unnecessary^ for they
are generally distributed over its temperate and
hotter portions, but they are not to be met with
either very far north or very far south of the
equator; that is to say, their range is bounded
northwardly by Southern Mexico and southwardly
by Bolivia. Within these limits the high and the
low lands are alike tenanted by them ; it, however, is
in the equatorial regions that they are most nume-
rous, and there all, or nearly all, the genera have
representatives. In the colouring of their plumage
the sexes are alike.

The Spotted Hermit (Grypus ncevius) is common in all
parts of the provmce of Santa Catherina in Brazil, but is
more frequently met with in woody situations than else-
where. Its flight is exceedingly noisy, very vigorous, and
capable of being sustained for a great length of time, the
bu*d rarely alighting. Its cry is so loud and piercing as
to be heard above everything else, while it flutters around
the various species of Orchids, from whence it derives its
principal sustenance.

This Humming-bird builds a nest composed of tine
vegetable fibres woven together, so as to look like an open
network purse, the outer walls being so loosely made as
to permit the eggs and Iming to be visible : leaves, mosses,
and lichens are also woven in, and are packed rather
tightly under the eggs ; the edge, however, is always left
loose. Tliis nest is suspended at the end of a leaf, usually
that of a palm.

104

TENUIROSTRES.

SUB-FAMILY IT.
Trochilin.e. The Curved-hilled Humming -birds.

Gejt. Chaeac. — Bill more or less long, slender, and curved, the lateral margins
usually dilated and overlapping the lower mandible ; the nostrils basal, the
opening covered with a large scale, which is sometimes entirely concealed
by the projecting plumes; wings long and pointed; tail more or less long,
and of various forms ; tarsi very short ; toes long and slender, with the
lateral ones united at their base, the hind toe long, and armed with a more
or less lengthened claw.

^''Mt''^

Fig. 40. — the eagle humming-bird.

(Polytmus aqiiila.)

Tlie Humming-birds belonging to tliis sub-family
are inhabitants of tlie central and warmer regions of
America and of the West Indies ; one of tlie prettiest,

The Topaz HTimming-"bird {Topaza pella), is an
inhabitant of the low districts of Cayenne, Trinidad, and
Surinam, and also of the countries bordering the lower
Amazon. The male measui-es about six inches in length,
exclusive of a pair of elongated tail-feathers that are
wanting in tlie female, which is also smaller than her

TROCHILID.E. 105

mate. The whole of the back and wing-coverts in the
male are deep crimson-red, verging to orange towards
the tail, and gradually giving place to bronzed green in
the upper tail-coverts. The head is deep violet-black,
and from it a broad band passes down the sides of the
neck and across the throat, enclosing a large space of the
most brilliant golden green, glowing in the centre with
the sheen of a toj)az. The general colour of the female is
bronzed green. " This species never shows his beauty to
the sun. Residing close by the densely-wooded sides of
rivers, and dark and lonely creeks, he leaves his retreat
before sunrise to feed on insects near the w^ater ; but
returns to its shelter as soon as the sun's rays become
/powerful, and only comes out again for a short time
after sunset. The nest is built on a twig over the
water in unfrequented places, of a material that looks
like tanned cow-leather. This nest is of a deep cup-like
form, with very thin walls, composed, apparently, of
a sort of fungus resembling German tinder held together
by cobwebs."

lOf)

TENUIROSTRES.

SUn-FAMILY HI.
Mellisugix^.* The Straight-hilled Ilummhuj -birds.

Gen. Chaeac. — Bill more or less lengthened, slender, and straight, the lateral
margins more or less dilated over the lower mandible ; the nostrils basal,
with the opening sometimes concealed by the projecting jjlumes ; wings
long and pointed ; tail of various length and forms ; tarsi very short ; toes
more or less long, the outer toe united at its base, and the hind toe long,
and armed usuallj' with a long claw.

Fig. 41,— the racket-tailed humming-bied.

{McUitiiiga miruhiUs.)

Tlie Humming-birds belonging to this division
frequent tubular flowers, before wliicli they suspend
themselves on the wing so steadily that their wings

* Mel, honey ; sugere, to suck.

TROCHILID.E. 107

become in\4sible^ or appear only like a mist. AVhen
one of these birds is thus poised, even the pupil of
his eye is plainly distinguishable, looking round with
great quickness and circumspection. When he
alights, he always prefers the small dead twigs of a
tree or bush, where he dresses or arranges his
plumage with great nicety. His only note is a single
chirp, not much louder than that of a cricket or
grasshopper : this is generally uttered while passing
from flower to flow^er, or when engaged in fight with
his fellows ; for when two males meet at the same
bush or flower, a battle invariably ensues, and the
combatants ascend into the air, chirping, darting,
and circling round each other, till the eye is no
longer able to follow them. The conqueror generally
returns to the place to reap the fruits of victory.
The flight of these birds much resembles that of a
bee, but is so much more rapid that the insect
appears to be a mere loitei"er in comparison. It has
generally been supposed that the food of the
Humming-birds consists entirely of honey or the
liquid sweet that they gather from the flowers ; but
observation has given rise to the belief that it is
rather upon the minute insects that feast upon the
farina of tubular flowers that they subsist. Some-
times, indeed, they may be seen employed, for half
an hour at a time, in darting among the little groups
of insects that dance in the air on a summer^s even-
ing, and then retiring into an adjoining bush to rest,
renewing the attack at intervals ^dth a dexterity far
surpassing that of the ordinary Fly-catchers.

Their nest is usually fixed to the branch of a tree,
at the distance of a few feet from the ground. It is
a beautiful structure, very small, and composed ex-
ternally of lichens taken from the trunks of trees or
from palings : these are thickly glued on A^ath the
saliva of the bird, so as to give firmness and consist-
ency to the whole fabric, and effectively to keep out
moisture. Within this are thick matted layers of
the fine wings of certain seeds, closely laid together ;

108 TEXUIROSTRES.

and^ lastly^ the downy substance from the great
Mullein and from the stalks of the common Fern
lines the whole. The base of the nest entwines the
stem of the branchy to which it closely adheres. The
eggs are two in number, and the female rears two
broods in the course of the same season.

Tlie Little Humming-hird {Mellisuga minima) may be
regarded as the smallest species of the family. It is an
inhabitant of St. Domingo and Jamaica. Of this little
feathered fairy, Mr. Gosse observes : — " It is the only
Humming-bird, with which I am acquainted, that has a
real song : the others have only a pertinacious chirping.
I have sometimes," he says, " watched with great
delight the evolutions of this little species at a Maringa
tree. When only one is present, he pursues the round
of the blossoms soberly enough, sacking as he goes, and
every now and then sitting quietly on a twig. But if
two are about the tree, one will fly off, and suspending
himself in the air a few yards distant, the other presently
shoots off to him, and then, without touching each other,
they mount upwards, Avith a strong rushing of wings,
perhaps for five hundred feet. They then sei)arate, and
each shoots diagonally towards the ground, like a ball
from a rifle, and, wheeling round, comes up to the
blossoms again, and sucks and sucks as if it had not
moved away at all. Frequently one alone will mount
in this manner, or dart on invisible wing diagonally
upwards, looking exactly like a ' humble bee.' The
nest is a minute cup-shaped structure, jjlaced upon or
between the twigs of trees. It is composed of silk-cotton
(the down of the Bombyx), and ornamented externally
with fragments of lichen."

MELIPHAGID.E. 109

FAMILY lY.

Meliphagid/E.* The Honey-eaters.

Gen. Chakac. — Bill more or less long, curved, and usually acute at the tip,
which is slightly emarginated ; the nostrils placed in a large groove, and
generally covered by a membranous scale ; wings moderate, the first three
quills graduated ; the tail long and broad ; the tarsi rather short and strong,
and the toes more or less long, the outer always united at its base ; the
tongue is extensile, and furnished at the tip with a pencil of short slender
fibres.

' The beautiful birds composing tlie family of tlie
Honey-eaters^ altliougli nearly unknown to Linnaeus,
occupy a prominent and important situation in the
ornithological department of nature. Chiefly con-
fined to Australia, where they abound in every variety
of form, and in an apparently inexhaustible multitude
of species, they find a sufficient and never-failing
support in the peculiar vegetation of that country.
There the fields are never without blossom, and
different species of plants, particularly the EuccdyiDti,
afford a constant succession of that food which is
suitable to the tubular and brush-like tongue of these
birds. It must not be supposed, however, that the
food of the Meliphagidse is restricted, as their name
would imply, simply to the nectar of flowers. They,
indeed, feed upon the honey, but combined with
the numerous small insects lodged in most flowers,
which they extract with their tongues, formed
for that purpose.

This family embraces three subdivisions, named
respectively the Honey-creepers, the Honey-eaters,
and the Honey-feeders.

* jidXi, meli, honey ; (pdyoj, phago, to eat ; Honey-eater.

no

TENUIROSTRES.

SUB-FAMILY I.
Myzomelin.^^." Tlir Honey -creepers.

Gen. Char AC. — Bill more or less long, slender, curved, and acute at the tip,
wbich is slightly emarginated ; the nostrils basal, and the opening covered
by a membranous scale ; the wings rather short, with the third and fourth
quill-" usually the longest ; the tail short and even ; the tarsi short ; toes
moderate, the outer toe longer than the inner, and united at the liase.

y <^

Fig. 42.

-THE SANGUINEOUS HONEY-CREEPEK.

{Myzomelu chermeginia.)

The Honey-creepers are found only in Austr^lia^
where they frequent various plants^ from the flowers
of which they collect the nectar^ as well as the small
insects found in them. They exhibit great activity,
and are continually moving from flower to flower,
and from branch to branch, in search of their sub-
sistence. Occasionally they may be seen perched on
a dead bough, and uttering a weak, plaintive note.

* /xv^ciw, myzao, to sucT< ; /xeXi, meli, honey ; Honey-suckers.

MELIPHAGID.E.

Ill

Their nest is composed of grasses^ wherein the female
deposits two eggs.

The t}^e of this sub-family^ —

The Sanguineous Honey-creeper {Myzomela cher-
mesinia), is a Leaiitiful little biid, an inhabitant of the
thick brushes of New South Wales, particularly those
near the coast, and tho?«e clothing the hilly jiortions of
the interior. It is rarely, if ever, found among the
trees in the open part of the country ; and there is reason
to believe that the south-eastern side of the continent is
its natural and restricted habitat. It gives a decided
preference to those parts of the forest that abound with
flowering plants, whose fragrant blossoms attract large
numbers of insects of various kinds, upon which, and the
pollen of the flower-cups, it chiefly subsists.

1 '

W'''

112

TEKUIKOSTRES.

SUB-FAMILY II.
Meliphagin.e. TJie Honey-eaters proper.

Gex. Charac. — Bill more or less loug and slender, with the tip slightly emar-
ginated, and usually acute ; wings moderate and rounded, with the fourth to
the sixth quills generally the longest ; tarsi generally short and strong ; toes
moderate, with the outer toe longer than the inner, and united at its base,
the hind toe long and strong; the claws moderate, curved, and very acute.

Fig. 43.— the plain TRoriDouHYNCHUs.
(Tropiilorhj/nchiis inorn<ift(s.)

Tlie Honey-eaters likewise belong to tlie Aus-
tralian continent^ thougli a few liave been discovered
on islands tliat present almost a tropical climate.

Wherever tlie Eiocalyptl and the Banlisias are in
flower, there these birds may be seen, sucking the
nectar from their blossoms. They also feed on the
small insects that lie concealed in flowers and on the
fruits and berries of various plants. Their move-
ments among the branches are active and graceful,

MELIPHAGID.E. 1 ] :^

but their rapid and jerking flight is only extended
from tree to tree. Their note consists of a loud
whistle, which in many species is agreeable to the
ear. Their nest is usually built in some low tree or
bush; it is composed of small twigs, coarse grass,
moss, and chips of bark, lined internally with soft
materials principally derived from plants. The eggs
are two or three in number.

The type of the race, —

The Tropidorhynchus inornatus, is found in most pai-ts
of Australia and New Guinea. They are usually seen
on the various trees in blossom, the flowers of which they
search for the purpose of extracting the pollen, and for
the various insects which frequent them for a smiilar
purpose. Berries, wild figs, and the juice which exudes
from wounds in trees, are also said to form a part of theii-
subsistence. They are often observed in small parties
on the upper branches, to which they cling, and hang in
various graceful positions while seeking their food : whilst
thus engaged, they emit a loud and monotonous cry. The
eggs are deposited by the female of one species on the top
of the domed nests of the Pomatorhini, whilst others form
suspended nests, of a large size, in the form of a cup, and
composed of stringy bark, wool, and twigs, lined with
gTass and fibrous roots. The eggs are usually two or
three in number.

114

TENUIROSTRES.

SUB-FAMILY III.
Melithkeptin.e.'"' The Honey -feeders.

Gen. Chakac. — Bill short, sub-conic, slightly curved, and the sides much
compressed towards the tip, which is sometimes emarginated and acute ;
the wings more or less long, with the fourth to the seventh quills generally
the longest; the tarsi short and strong; the toes more or less long, the
lateral toes unequal, the outer the longest, and united at its base ; the claws
moderate, compressed, and acute.

Fig. 41. — tbe white-tukoated honey-feeder.
(Melitkreptus (jidaris. )

The Honey-feeders constitute another group
peculiar to Australia^ where they may be seen, in
small parties J frequenting the Eucalypti and Acacias.
They usually creep about the leafy and flower-bearing
branches with perfect ease and great rapidity, search-
ing for insects and the pollen of flowers ; they also
frequent orchards, to feed upon the fruit, amongst
which they commit great havoc. Sometimes they

* ji'tXi, meli, honey ; GpeK-^og, tlireptos, nourished.

MELIPHAGID.E. 115

may be seen motionless upon tlie topmost dead or
bare bouglis, uttering a loud wliistling note, whicli
at once betrays their locality.

The Limated Honey-feeder [Mdithreptus lunatus),
distinguished from the preceding Honey-eaters by the
possession of a stronger and more conical bill, is abundant
in many parts of the Australian continent. The nest of
this bird is usually attached to the slender twigs which
grow^ at the top of the prodigious Eucalypti, and at this
great height it is only discernible to an experienced
observer. The fabric is ingeniously constructed of the
inner rind or '• liber "of the "stringy-bark," and other
gum-trees, a material resembling the "bass" used by
'gardeners. The hair of various animals is mixed with
the bark ; and since sheep have been introduced into
Australia, the bird has availed itself of their wool,
finding that it can be worked well into the side, and
seems to bind the walls firmly together. As the nest is
always hung by the rim to the twigs, strength of sub-
stance is an absolute necessity ; so that the toughness of
fibre, and the felting property of the wool, make it a
most valuable addition to the building material employed.
For the lining of the nest, the Lunated Honey-eater
uses the fur of the Phalanger, which has the advantage of
being veiy soft, very warm, of retaining its elasticity,
and of not adhering to the claws of the inmates, as would
be the case with wool.

The typical form is the White-throated Honey-
feeder {MelithrpjHus gularis).

116 TENUIROSTRES.

FAMILY V.

Certhiad.e. The Tree-creeiJers.

Gen. Charac. — Bill more or less long, and generally slender, with the tip
entire and slightly arched ; nostrils usually small, and covered by a mem-
branous scale ; the wings sometimes rounded and sometimes rather pointed ;
the tail varying very much in length and form ; the tarsi and toes differ
much in length, especially the latter, forming characters whereby the sub-
families of this large group are distinguished.

The Creepers somewhat resemble the Wood-
peckers in the mode of progression^ which is by
extremely rapid short hops or starts upon the bark
of trees^ to which they cling with their sharp claws,
at the same time using their tail to assist them in
climbing. To adapt it to such an office, the tail-
feathers are stift' and strong, and the shafts project
as sharp points beyond the webs. The tarsi are
generally short, the toes long, and armed with long
curved claws. This is especially the case with the
more typical species, which are organized for running
on the trunks and branches of trees in search of
insects that constitute their food. It is from this
circumstance they have received their name of
'^ Creepers." Indeed, their movements and general
aspect, when engaged in hunting for their sub-
sistence, are so like those of small quadrupeds, that
at the first glance they might be easily mistaken
for mice. Many of them make a nest in the holes
of trees, where they rear a numerous progeny.

This family, which is rather numerous, embraces
the Oven-birds, the Sharp-tails, the Tree-creepers,
the Creepers, the Nuthatches, the Mohouas, and the
Wrens.

CERTHIADJ^:.

IJ

SUB-FAMILY I.
FuRXARix.E. The Oven-birds.

Gex. Charac— Toes rather long, the lateral ones unequal, the outer ones
rather the longest, and slightly united at its base, the inner toe free at its
haso.

Fig 45.— the black-tailed enicoenis.
{Unicorn is melan u ra , )

Tliese small birds are found in tlie warmer parts
of South America, especially in buslies, on the banks
of tlie rivers, or near the dwellings of man, or even
in open places. They are always seen in pairs, are
very active, and capable of running and walking
with great rapidity. Their flight is only from bush
to bush, which they minutely examine for insects,
chiefly those of the coleopterous kind, although
they occasionally feed on seeds.

The male utters a series of loud shrill notes, of
a very peculiar character. Their singular nest, from
G 3

118 TENTjIKOSTRES.

which they derive the name of Oven-birds, is gene-
rally built in an exposed situation on a thick leafless
branch or on the top of a paling ; sometimes, even,
in the interior of houses. Both sexes labour at its
construction, each alternately bringing a lump of
clay, a piece of straw, or of the dry stems of plants.
This remarkable structure, when finished, has the
appearance of an oven, six or eight inches in
diameter, and about an inch in thickness. From
the entrance, which is on one side, a passage reaches
to the roof, and terminates by a circular opening in
an inner chamber, where the eggs are deposited on
a bed of feathers or grass.

Tlie species figured in the Tabular View,

The Patagonian Cinclodes (Cindodes Patagonica), is
found principally upon the western coast of South
America, especially towards the southern extremity of
that continent.

The type of this sub-family is —

The Black-tailed Enicornis [Enicomis melanura),
represented in our engraving.

CEKTHIAD.TC.

119

SUB-FAMILY IL
Syxallaxin.e.* The SluirptaiU.

Gen. Chakac. — Toes moderate and strong, with the lateral toes unequal, the
outer one the longest and united to near the first joint, and the inner slightly
united at the base, the hind toe strong and long ; the claws strong, com-
pressed, and curved.

Fig. 46 —the Chilian syxallaxis
{Srjaallaxis rujicapiUa.)

The birds composing tliis sub-family are likeAvise
peculiar to South America. They are usually found
in pairs, but sometimes in little flocks of twelve or
fourteen, on the borders of lakes and rivers, or on
rushy inundated places, where they may be seen
Hitting from reed to reed, upon which they run up
and down in search of minute insects. They
usually carry their heads erect, and utter, at in-
tervals, a shrill note, quickly repeated. Their flight
is jerking, and they walk on the ground with con-

* avvaWaaait)^ synallasso, to associate together.

120 TENUIROSTRES.

siderable ease and activity^ collecting food from tlie
withered herbage. Their nests are cylindrical^ very
large^ and generally placed in the middle of a
compact bush. They are composed outwardly of
prickly twigs^ with the entrance at the upper end,
from which a curved passage loads to the interior,
which is lined with feathers and hair.

Some species build a nursery for their young of
very elaborate construction, placed at the extremity
of the branch of a prickly tree, or occasionally in the
middle of an isolated bush : the size of this nest is
enormous when we take into account the small
dimensions of its little artificers ; it measures some-
times ■ two feet in height, and a foot and a half in
diameter. This large structure is of an elongated,
oval form, having the broadest part below. Exter-
nally it is protected by many large thorny branches,
intertwined with such art that they cannot be 23ulled
asunder without destroying the entire fabric, which
is lined with feathers, hair, and straws. Internally
it consists of two chambers, of which one is rather
spacious, and opens on the side or top. In this
chamber there is a corridor, which at first ascends,
and then leads down to a second compartment,
better furnished with feathers and other warm
materials, on which the female lays four or five
eggs. The parent birds take great care of these
nests, in the repair of which they seem to be con-
stantly engaged, and from which they drive their
young as soon as they are able to take care of
themselves.

In the woodland scenery of Bahia, in Brazil, the
nests of these birds form very striking objects, being
sometimes three or four feet long, and resembling
at a distance thick twists of bean-stalks, thrown
amongst the branches by accident. Both the male
and female may generally be seen near their remark-
able domiciles, uttering a shrill monotonous chirp.

I^he type of this sub-family is the —

Chilian Synallaxis [Synallaxis rvjicapilla).

CERTHIAD.?^.

12]

SUB-FAMILY III.

Dexdrocolaptin^.

The T,

ree-creepers iwoiw.v.

Gen. Charac. — Bill of various length and form, more or less curved, and
compressed on the sides to the tip, which is usually entire ; the nostrils
basal, lateral, small, and exposed; the wings moderate and generally
rounded ; the tail long, broad, and graduated, with the shaft of each feather
prolonged beyond the web, and acute ; the tarsi moderate, strong, and
broadly scaled; the toes long, the outer toe rather longer than the middle
one, and united for some distance from the base, the inner short and slightly
united at the base, the hind toe long ; the claws long, compressed, much
curved, and acute.

Fig. 47. — the stkiped-headed tree-creepee.
{DendrocoUiptes lineatocephaliis.)

The Tree-creepers are distinguislied by the
structure of their tail, which is long, broad, and
graduated. The typical species inhabit the vast
forests of the warmer parts of South America. They
are usually observed clinging to the trunks and

* ^sj'Opoj/, dendron, a tree ; koXcitttm, colapto, to pech ; Tree-
peckers.

122

TENUIIIOSTKES.

])ranc'lies of trees, by meant^ of their strong curved
claws, and supported by the rigid points of their
tail-feathers, examining the cracks in the bark, and
])rying among the foliage for insects or their larvas,
upon which they principally subsist. Their manners
and habits closely assimilate to those of our Common
Creeper. The female deposits three or four eggs
in the hollow trunk of a tree.

The type of this Sub-family is the Bendrocohqjtes
Uneatocp pi talus.

5*."--^

CERTHIADJ-L

123

SUB-FAMILY IV,

Certhixjs.

The Crp.epers.

Gex. Ch arac— Toes very long and slender, tlie outer toe longer than the inner,
united beyond the first joint, and the inner toe as far as the first joint of the
middle toe, the hind toe very long and slender; the claws long, much com-
pressed, and curved.

--'^^W'^vU''?^'-'

^->

. ^t.\

Fig. 48. — the common creeper.
{Certhia famiUaris )

Tlie Creepers constitute a group of beautiful
small birds, inliabitiug Europe, Asia, and the tem-
perate parts of North America. They are met
with wherever trees are abundant, where they may
be seen creeping upon the trunks, generally com-
mencing at the bottom and running upwards in a
straight or spiral direction, using their stiff-pointed
tail to assist them in the ascent. Sometimes they

124 TENUIROSTKES.

may be noticed on the branches, nlong the nnder
surface of whicli they are able to run with perfect
facility, in search of the insects that lie concealed in
holes and crevices of the bark.

The type of this sub-family, —

The Common Creeper (Gerthia familiaris), is a most
active and restless little bird, ever on the alert, and
climbing about the trunks and branches of trees, intent
on picking up its insect food. Though comparatively
common, and a constant resident in Britain, it is not
easily seen, for its celerity in shifting its position makes
it very difficult to follow it with the eye. At one mstant
it is before the spectator, and the next is hidden from
his view by the intervening trunk or branch, to the oppo-
site side of which it has passed in a moment. The form
of the tail, and structure of the feet, are beautifully
ada])ted for this sort of rapid locomotion.

CERTHIAD.E.

12;

SUB-FAMILY V.

SiTTIN.E.

The Nuthatches.

Gen. Charac. — Toes slender, with the outer toe shorter than the middle one,
and united at the base to the first joint, the inner toe shorter than the outer
one, and slicrhtlv united at the base.

'0^

Fig. 49. — the European nuthatch.

{Sitta Eiiropaea.)

The Nutliatclies are found tlirougliout Europe
and North. America, and some species have been
met with in various parts of India and the adjacent
islands. They prefer forests and dense woods,
where they may be seen moving rapidly about on
the trunks of trees, running both upwards and
downwards in a spiral direction, or creeping round
the small branches, probing into the cracks, and
occasionally removing pieces of the bark in search
of spiders and insects. In severe weather they
sometimes approach the dwellings of man, when
they do not refuse to feed upon grain. The seeds

I2G TENUIKOSTRES.

of the piiie-coiio, and tlie kernels of filberts and
hazel-nuts, also form a portion of their subsistence.
These latter they break by placing the nut in a
chink and striking it with their bill until they have
made a hole in the shell sufficiently large to enable
them to get at the kernel. They deposit their eggs
in the hole of a tree, or in the deserted nest of a
woodpecker, upon a small collection of dead leaves,
principally those of the oak.

The type of the race, — ■

The European Nuthatch {Sitta Eitropceo), has a stouter
and straigliter bill than the generality of the Creepers,
It is a small bird, measuring little more than five inches
and a half in length, and is common in many parts of
Europe, especially in the South.

CERTHIAD.E.

12;

SUB-FAMILY VI.
Orthoxycix.e. * The Mohouas.

Gen. Charac— Toes long and very strong, tlie outer toe nearly as long as the
middle one, and united slightly at the base, the hind toe moderate and very
strong ; the claws remarkably long, strong, slightly curved, and acute.

^f^

1 l|t«

FiCV. 50. — THE YELLOW-HEADED ORTttONYX.

( OHkoityx ockrocepkalug. )

Tliis sub-family embraces a small group of birds
found in the islands of the South Seas, and also in
New Zealand. Like the true Creepers, they are
usually seen running upon the trunks of trees,
searching for their subsistence, which chiefly consists

* 6p96g, orthos, straight ; ovv^^ onyx, a claw ; Straight-clawed.

128

TENUIROSTRES.

(jf minute insects, tliougli they occasionally feed on
small seeds.

The typical spc

cies,

The Spine-tailed Orthonyx {Orfhonyx spinicanda), is
rather more than eight inches in length. It has the
shafts of the tail-feathers prolonged beyond tlie webs,
forming, as indicated by the name, a set of spines at the
a])ex of the tail. This bird is fonnd in the most retired
spots in the bushes skirting the coast of the south-
eastern angle of Australia. Here it is seen running
over the fallen trunks of trees, and mossy stones, in
search of the insects, principally beetles, which constitute
its food

'> J"-^r

X^V^'^A.^.rfjl^

%kM

CERTHIAD.^.

129

SUB-FAMILY \II.

Menurin.e.'

The Wr.

Gejt. Chaeac— Bill more or less long and slender, with the c\ilmen usually
slightly curved, and the sides compressed to tbe tip, which is scarcely emar-
ginated; the nostrils lateral, with the opening protected by a horny scale or
membrane; the wings more or less short and rounded ; the tail of various
lengths, but generally rounded ; the tarsi more or less long and slender ; the
toes generally long, with the outer toe longer than the inner, and slightly
united at the base, the hind toe long and strong ; the claws long, and more
or less curved.

Fig. 51.— the ltee-biru.

{Meniini sHperha,)

hi)}!], mene, the crescent moon; ovpa, oitra, a tail ; tlie Lyre-bird.

130 TENUIROSTRES.

The birds belonging to this sub -family are gene-
rally seen in pairs, examining the low thickets or
coarse herbage in open plains, or on the outskirts and
open places of woods and forests, and even in the
neighbourhood of houses. Their flight is low and
short, and they are in the habit of concealing tliem-
selves amongst the foliage of thickets, or in holes
and crevices, and reappearing unexpectedly in
another quarter. Various kinds of insects, either
in the perfect state or that of the larva, form their
principal subsistence, and some species thus render
infinite service to gardens and cultivated places.
Most of them possess a sweet, lively, and powerful
whistling song, which they utter with great anima-
tion, often repeating the same note over and over
again. Their nest is placed against the branch of a
tree, a bank, the wall of a house, or any place that
offers warmth and security for their young. It is
composed of moss and other soft materials, put
together usually in an oval form, leaving only a
small entrance on one side, near the top. The eggs
are generally four in number. Although the birds
belonging to this sub-family are ordinarily of small
dimensions, the selected type of the race is a large
and handsome species, called from its peculiar
plumage —

The Lyre-hird [Menura superha). The Lyre-bird is
a native of New South Wales, where it inhabits the
brushwood upon the coast and upon the mountains in
the interior. It equals in size our own common
Pheasant ; but its limbs are longer in proportion, and its
feet much larger. In the male, the feathers of the head
are elongated into a crest, and the genei^al plumage is
full, soft, and downy. The most striking feature, how-
ever, is the tail, which is converted into a beautiful
plume-like ornament, representing, when erect and
expanded, the figure of a lyre; whence is derived the
name of its possessor. This ornamental appendage,
however, is confined to the male ; in the female, the tail
is long and graduated, and the feathers are pei'fectly
^ webbed on both sides of the shaft.

131
TRIBE III.

DEXTIROSTRES.

The birds forming this division of the Passerine
order are distinguished by having a more or less dis-
tinct tooth or notch on each side of the upper man-
dible, near the tip, which is usually more or less
hooked.* The bill is sometimes slender and weak,
sometimes stout and powerful ; in the latter case, the
tooth-like projections are generally strong-, and the
birds as predacious in their habits as some of the
smaller hawks. The feet are slender, but usually
armed w4th curved and acute claws.

FAMILY I.

LusciNiD.E. The Warblers.

Gkx. Chabac— Bill subulate, more or less slender and straight, with the
upper mandible curved and emarginated, the base sometimes broad, but the
bill always compressed towards the tip ; the nostrils basal, and placed in a
membranous grooTC, with the opening exposed ; the wings more or less long,
sometimes rounded and sometimes pointed ; the tail of various lengths,
truncated at the end, or rounded, and sometimes graduated ; the tarsi more
or less long, always slender ; the toes varying in length, with the outer toe
more or less united to the middle toe.

In these birds the sides of the upper mandible are
but slightly toothed; the mngs are long, the tarsi
slender, and the toes terminated by claws of moderate
length. They are for the most part distinguished
for great power of song. Their food consists almost
entirely of insects and worms, so that those which
inhabit cold and temperate regions are for the most
part migratoiy.

To this family belong the Soft-tailed Warblers,
the Warblers, the Robins, the Accentors, the Titmice,
the Wagtails, and the Wood- Warblers.

* See Animal Creation, p. 419.

132

DENTIROSTRES.

SUB-FAMfLY I.

Malurin.e.*

The Soft-tailed Warhlers.

Gex. Chakac. — Bill moderate, more or less slender and straight, with the tip
of the upper mandible curved, and sometimes emarginated, the sides com-
pressed ; the nostrils basal, and placed in a membranous groove, with the
opening exposed ; wings short and rounded ; tail more or less lengthened
and rounded; tarsi generally long and slender; toes more or less long, and
always slender, with the outer toe united to the middle one at the base, the
hind toe long, and armed with a strong claw.

Fig. 52. — the yellow megalvrus.
{Me(jiil/(ri(s cifrhiHS.)

These elegant birds generally frequent open spaces
scattered over witli low brusliwood or bushes^ espe-
cially in tlie vicinity of rivers ; but in the winter
season they fearlessly approach the abode of man.
They are usually seen on the ground in pairs or small

* IxaWog, mallos, wool; ovpa, oura. the tail; Soft-tailed.

LUSCINID.E. 1 :>5

flocks^ moving rapidly from place to place by a series
of bomiding liops, or prjang about in search of
insects upon or beneath the fallen trunks of trees.
Their flight is feeble, and only extends over short
distances.

The Malurus cyaneus (named by the colonists t]i(^
Superb Warbler, Blue Wren, &c.) is an inhabitant of
N ew South Wales, where its favourite haunts are of a wild
and sterile character, thinly covered with low scrubby
brushwood, near the borders of rivers and ravines. These
birds are of a very wandering disposition, but seldom
travel far beyond the district where they were bred.
During the winter they associate in small flocks, but as
sprhig advances they sei^arate into pairs ; the male at tins
period undergoing a most remarkable change of plumage,
indeed its whole character and nature seem to receive a
new impulse. The little creature now displays great
vivacity, proudly showing ofl" its gorgeous attire, ami
pouring forth an animated song, almost unceasingly, until
the female has comj)leted her work of incubation. Two,
if not three broods are reared in a season. The song is a
hurried strain, something like that of the European
Wren.

The typical form of this sub-femily is the Yellow
Megalurus (Megalurus citrinus).

84

DENTIROSTRES.

SUB-FAMILY II.

LUSCININ.E.

The Warblers jyi'oper.

Gen-. Chaeac. — Bill more or less long, slender, and straight, with the culmen
curved at the tip, which is slightly emarginated ; the sides compressed, and
the gonj's long and ascending ; the nostrils basal, and placed in a mem-
branous groove, with the opening usually exposed; the wings moderate,
and sometimes rounded ; the tail moderate and rounded at the end ; the
tarsi more or less lengthened, slender, and covered with broad scales, the
divisions of which are sometimes obliterated; the toes more or l^ss long,
slender, and covered with broad scales, the divisions of which are sometimes
obliterated, the outer toe generally longer than the inner, and united at its
base ; the claws long, curved, and acute.

Fig. 53.— the wightingale.

{Philoinehi li(t<ci>ii<i.)

The species tliat compose tliis sub-family are
peculiar to the Old World, and are migratory at
certain seasons of the year. They are usually seen
in woods and thickets, in which they hide them-
selves, and through which they flit with great swift-
ness when alarmed. They search actively among the
leaves for insects ; they also feed on the seeds of the

LuscmiD.E. 1:35

ivy and otlier soft berries. Some place tliemselves
on the summit of a busli, and pour forth at intervals
their clear and well-defined notes ; others utter their
song on the wing^ as they rise from the ground to a
great elevation in the air, and then return slowly to
the spot whence they had started. They build their
nests in low bushes or among nettles, constructing
them with the stems of plants, and lining the in-
terior with hair and fine fibres of roots. The eggs
are generally four in number.

The type of this musical sub-family is —

' The Nightingale {Philomela luscinia). This " Queen
of Song " is by no means remarkable for the beauty of its
plumage, although most elegant in shape. Its general
colour is brown, tinged with red above, and dullish grey-
white beneath. The Nightingale arrives in this country
about the middle of April, the males making their appear-
ance a few days sooner than their mates. They are not
found in the extreme west parts of England, nor in
Ireland ; and they do not j)enetrate further northward
than Yorkshire, although on the Continent they are seen
in Sweden. They frequent woods, plantations, and
orchards, and feed on insects and spiders. The observa-
tions of Mr. Gould, respecting the migrations of the
Nightingale, lead him to the conclusion that, after
leaving England, it proceeds to the oj^posite shores of the
Continent, and gradually makes its way southward until
it arrives in Africa, which is its ultimate resting-place
during our winter months. . In Africa, moreover, it
seems to be confined to the northern districts, nevei-
havmg been obtained from the central or southern jDarts
of that continent. In no part of Europe is it more
abundant than in Spain and Italy, from whence, however,
as from our own climate, it regularly migrates on the
approach of winter. The Nightmgale is exceedingly shy,
living ui low swampy coppices, close thickets, hedges,
and similar situations. It is seldom seen, its retreat
bemg only discovered by its peculiar call-note, and its
song, which for richness and power is unrivalled.

Unlike most of the smaller birds, Nightingales
never associate in flocks. Then* food consists principally
H 2

|:;r)

UENTIROSTRES.

of insects, small worms. ogg!< of ants, and Ijcrrics of
various kinds.

Their nest is made in the lower part of a hedge or a
thick bnsh, where it is sheltered securely. It is formed
of grass, leaves, and moss, softly lined with hair and
down. AVhilst the female is sitting on her eggs, her
mate, i)erched hard by, pours foi'th his varied song, to

• -^^ K

Fig. 54. — nigutixgale's xest.

while away the tedious liours and enliven her by his
wai'blings ; but when the brood is hatched, he ceases his
melody, and betakes himself to the active employment
of j)ro^iding for his family. Sometimes the first brood
is succeeded by a second, and a third, — in hot countries
even by a fourth.

I'lie voice of the Nightingale excels that of any other
bird, and is the more delightful, because it breaks upon
us in the stillness of the evening when all else is silent.
Ancients and moderns have alike borne testimony to its
inimitable sweetness. "The Nightingale," says Pliny,
" that for fifteen days and nights, hid in tlie thickest
shades, continues her note without intermission, deserves
our attention and wonder. How surprising that so great
a voice can reside in so small a body ! Such persever-
ance in so tiny an animal ! Witli what a musical pro-
priety are the sounds it produces modulated ! The note
at one time draAvn out with a long breath, now stealing
off into a different cadence, now interrupted by a break ;

LUSCINLD^.

]s-

then changing into a new note by an unexpected transi-
tion ; now seeming to renew the same strain, then
deceiving expectation. She sometimes seems to mnrmnr
within herself; and then her song bursts forth full,
deep, sharp, swift, drawling, trembling ; now at the
top, the middle, and the bottom of the scale. In short,
in that little bill seems to reside all that melody which
man has vainly laboured to bring from a variety of
musical instruments. Some even seem to be j^ossessed
of a different song from the rest, and contend Avith
each other with orreat ardour."

^v

138

dp:xtirostres.

SUB-FAMILY in.

Erythacin.eJ

The liohins.

Gen. Charac— Bill moderate, more or less slender, and rather depressed at
the base, with the culmon slightly curved, and the sides gradually compressed
to the tip, which is entire, the lateral margins straight and sometimes
inflexed, the gape more or less furnished with bristles ; wings generally
short and rounded, though sometimes long and pointed ; the tail usually
short and broad, sometimes even and rounded at the end ; the tarsi length-
ened, slender, and covered with an entire scale; the toes moderate, the lateral
ones unequal, and the claws moderate, curved, and acute.

Fig. 55. — the redbeeast.
{Erythaca ruheeula.)

The Robins are represented by a single species,
found in Europe, wbere during the summer months
it resides in the thickest woods ; but on the approach
of winter it leaves its solitary abode, and may
generally be observed in the vicinity of human habi-
tations. It is of a solitary disposition, never con-

* ipvOaivw, erythaino, to redden.

LUSCINID^. 1-39

gregating in flocks, even wlien performing its partial
migrations. It subsists principally on insects and
their larvae, and also on worms, whicli it beats to
death and cleanses before eating. It shows great
boldness in attacking other birds, should they ap-
proach the vicinity of its nest or the place that it has
selected for its own peculiar province during the
winter.

The tjrpe of this sub-family is —

The Rohin Redbreast {Erytliaca ruhecula). This
lively and feniiliar l)ird is strictly indigenous to Europe ;
its range only extendmg eastward as far as the border-
line of Asia Minor. In Europe, the middle and northern
regions are those in which it appears to be most
abundant, and over which it is universally spread. Its
fearless confidence in man, which leads it to frequent his
gardens and the precincts of his house ; its sprightly
manners, and its animated song, poured forth morning
and evening, even throughout the autumn and colder part
of the year, when all other songsters are silent, — make it
a most welcome visitor to his habitation. Attractive as
the Robin is on account of its pleasmg manners, it is of
a quarrelsome and pugnacious disposition. Two males
seldom agree to live in the same garden, or within a certain
distance ; the stronger always driving away the weaker.
During the greater part of the year its food consists of
worms, grubs, the softer caterpillars, and small insects,
together with berries and fruits when in season ; but in
the depth of winter, when its natural food cannot be
procured, it subsists u])on the crumbs freely offered
wherever it presents itself

In spring, the Robin retiring with his mate to the
woods, begins to build a nest for the use of his future
family. Moss and dried leaves, intermixed with hair,
form the nest, which is cup-shaped and lined with
feathers. It is placed near the ground, sheltered by the
roots of trees, or sometimes m old buildings, but always
hidden as much as possilile. While the hen bird sits on
her eggs, the male, perched close by, makes the woods
resound with his cheerful song, and vigilantly looks out
that no intruder shall approach his nest. As soon as the

140

DENTIKOSTEES.

young are liatclied and able to ])rovide for themselves, he
leaves the woods, and approaches again the abode of
man ; and when the frost becomes severe, and the snow
covers the ground, he draws near to the house.

" Half afraid, he first
Against the window beats, then brisk alights
On the warm hearth ; then hopping on the floor,
Eyes all the smiling family askance,
And pecks, and starts, and wonders where he is,
Till more familiar grown, the table crumbs
Attract his slender feet." — Thomson.

LUSCINID.E. 141

SUB FAMILY IV.
Accentor I x.E."' The Accentor.s.

Gen. Charac. — Bill short, straight, and sometimes conical, with the eiihneu
sloping, and the sides compressed to the tip, which is slightly emarginated ;
the nostrils basal, and placed in a membranous groove with the oijeniu^
exposed ; wings more or less long, pointed, and sometimes rounded ; the
tail moderate, and generally rather rounded ; tarsi moderate, and rather
strong ; toes rather long, the outer toe united at its base, the hind toe Ion;.'
jiiul armed with a strong claw.

. .# '"'

Fl(i. 50 — THE HEDGE SPAKKOW.

(Accsiifor moduhjrii<.)

The birds composing tins sub-family inhabit both
Europe and Asia, migrating according to the season
of the year. They are to be seen beneath low bushes,
searching for worms among the fallen leaves and
stones ; they also feed on seeds and insects of various
kinds. Some species, should the winter be severe,
repair to the neighbourhood of farms and villages.
Their song, which consists of various notes, is sweet,
though feeble, and commences early in the season.

* Accentor, one v:lio joins another in singing.
H 3

142 DENTIROSTRES.

The nest_, generally liidden in a tliick bush, is formed
of moss and wool, lined with hair. The female lays
from four to six eggs.

The typical species —

The Alpine Accentor {Accentor lilpinus), inhabits the
Alps and Pyrenees, where it selects for its retreat the most
unfrequented places in those wild mountains. In the
patois of the regions it frequents, it is called Pegot or Pee,
which means an idiot, and its claims to the name seem
fully justified by its remarkable stupidity. These birds
never leave their native mountains except when their
desolate abode is swept by some storm or tempest, to escape
from which, they precipitate themselves into the valleys,
hide in the rifts of the rocks, or take refuge among the
bushes, where, eitlier from fright or simplicity, they even
become the sport of children, who amuse themselves by
killing them with sticks. On the summits of the moun-
tains they may be seen by the adventurous pedestrian
sitting in pairs upon the ground, or climbing among the
rocks with the assistance of their wings. The approach
of man does not seem to frighten them, neither will tliey
take the trouble to get out of his way. These bnds run
like ])artridges or quails, and do not hop like the rest of
their tribe. They make a circular nest, composed of moss
and grasses, m the cleft of some rock, and always with
a southern aspect. The female lays five or six eggs.

LUSCmiDJE.

143

SUB-FA JULY V.

PaRIN/E.

The Titmice.

Gen". Chahac— Bill strong, slightly compressed ; first primary short, second
shorter than the first, fourth and fifth longest; hind claw strongest and most
hooked : tarsus short.

\:

l->x>H',>i,:P"''''^^'^

Fig. 57. — the itaesh TiTMorsE.

The birds composing this sub -family are distri-
buted tkroughout Europe^ Asia^ Africa^ and North
America. They usually frequent woods and gardens,
and are very lively little birds, flitting from bush to
bush, running up and down branches vrith great
celerity, and hanging in various attitudes among the
foliage. Their food consists of insects, grubs, and
caterpillars ; but at times they will peck up grain or
seeds, and even feed upon flesh. They will some-
times attack weak and sickly birds, which they kill,
fracturing their skulls by repeated strokes of their
strong and pointed bill. The nests of some species

144 DENTIKOSTRES.

are formed in tlie lioles of decayed trees or old walls,
and are composed of moss and lined witli hair and
feathers. Others select the fork of a tree or the
middle of a bush, wherein they construct an oval-
shaped nest, made of lichens and wool intermixed,
and lined with feathers. The eggs are usually from
six to ten in number.

The majority of the Titmice — especially those
which frequent woods, thickets, and orchards — are
courageous, and even ferocious ; they will attack the
Owl with greater boldness than any other bird, being
always foremost in darting upon him, and trying to
peck at his eyes. They express their little rage
and fury by the swelling of their plumes, by violent
attitudes and precipitate motions. They peck
sharply the hand that holds them, and seem by their
cries to call others to their assistance — an appeal
which usually attracts them in crowds. There are
many traits in their manners and character resem-
bling those of the Shrikes, Pies, and Crows ; they
have the same appetite for flesh, and the same
custom of tearing the food to pieces before they eat
it. Though fierce, they are social, seek out the
company of then' own species, and form little flocks,
more or less numerous ; and if any accident should
separate them, they call each other mutually, and are
soon reunited. They seek then- food in common ;
visit the clefts of rocks and walls, and tear, with
their bills, lichens or the moss of trees, to find
insects or their eggs. They also feed on seeds, but
do not break them, like the Bullfinches and Linnets ;
they place them under their claws, and pierce them
with their bills, like the Nuthatches, with which they
sometimes associate during the winter.

The type of this sub -family —

The Great Tit {Parus major), is a handsome, vivacious
little fellow, common m Ensjland ; during the summer
frequenting woods and shrubberies, and in the winter
resortmg to gardens and orchards, clinging to the branches,

LUSCINID.E. 145

and searching diligently for the insects which, at that
season of the year, are hidden in the crevices of the hark.
These birds feed much upon carrion, and will even kill
small birds by frequent strokes of their sharp, hard bill
upon the head of the unfortunate victim, whose brains
they afterw^ards pick out and devour. The nest of the
Great Tit is placed in a hole in a tree or wall, and is com-

FlG. 5S. — THB GREAT TITitOCM:.

(Far US major )

posed of moss, hair, and feathers. The female lays usually
from eight to ten eggs, although occasionally sixteen, or
even eighteen have been found in one nest. They are
white, with pale red spots. When threatened by an in-
truder, tlie mother-bird stoutly defends her brood ; she
putls out her feathers, hissing loudly, and boldly pecks at
tlie assailant.

146

DENTTROSTRES.

SUB-FAMILY VI.

MOTACILLIN.^.

7'he Wagtails.

Gen. Charac— Bill slender, angular between the nostrils, the upper man-
dible notched ; wings with one of the scapulars as long as the closed wing ;
tail long ; legs long.

^JJ'.^i'/

Fig. 59. — THE WHITE WAGTAIL.

(Motacilla alba.)

These well-known birds frequent meadows and
humid or marshy places^ delighting in the borders of
rivulets and ponds.

The White Wagtails have a mode of life peculiar
to themselves, and more readily approach man and
his habitation than the rest of their congeners : the
others, more wild, inhabit the vicinity of meadows.
The former prefer stagnant waters; the latter are
generally seen on the borders of springs and running
streams. Both run with the cattle, fly about the
labourer, and follow the plough, in pursuit of smal"

luscinidj:. 147

worms and larvae, of which the newly-turned furrows
present a vast abundance. These birds, indeed, are
as useful as the Fly-catchers and the Swallows ;
sometimes during their flight, but more frequently
on the ground amidst the herbage, they seize upon
the flies and gnats which have escaped the bills of
their other pursuers in the air. The insect population
of ponds and marshes, however, constitute their
chief nourishment. Their slight forms, small head,
delicate feet, and long tail, distinguish them at once
from all the other Dentirostral birds.

The t}^e of this sub -family —

^ The White Wagtail {Motacilla alba), is everpvhere to
be seen frequeiiting the margins of ponds and streams.
It does not hop, like most of its near relatives, but runs
about in search of its insect food, which it pecks from
the ground, or occasionally rising with a short jerking
flight, snaps at it m the air,

Wlien on the gromid, they are constantly employed in
beating the surface with their tails, probably to rouse the
insects upon which they feed. They delight in being
near the edge of the water, and often approach the
washerwomen ; and, moreover, seem to imitate with
their tails the beatmg of linen. Hence the French have
given them the name of Lavandieres ; while, in England,
they are not unfrequently called by the less elegant name
of Dish-washers. They run lightly with very nimble
steps upon the strand, and their long legs enable them
to enter the water to a small depth ; but they are usually
seen upon stones, or little hillocks in the stream. This
Wagtail constructs its nest on the ground, under roots
of trees, or at the edge of the water, under some hollow
bank, in elevated piles of wood by the side of the river,
and sometimes in heaps of stones. It is composed of
dry grass, fibrous roots, and moss, connected carelessly
together, and lined with horsehair and feathers in
abundance. The eggs are of a bluish-white, spotted
with brown. There are usually two broods m the year.
The male relieves the female during some hours of the
day from the confinement of incubation.

U8

DENTIROSTBES.

The Wood Warbler {Sylvia sylvicoki), regui'ded l)y
some as tli<' type <jf' cMiotlier sub-fainily, is generally
distributed throughout England. It usually a[>})ears in
Ai)ril, and takes up its abode in Avoods and plantations.
Its food consists of insects and their l;»rva>. This Ijird

FiCt. 60 — THE WOOU WAKliLEH

builds a domed nest upon the ground, amongst the
herbage, forming it of dry grass, leaves, and moss ; and
lining it with fine grass and hair, but with no featliers.
The eggs are six in number, white, spotted all over with
deep red and ash-cohjur.

TURDID^]. 149

FAMILY II.

TuRDiD.E. lice Thrvahes.

Gen. Charac. — Bill of various lengths, and more or less strong, with the
eiUmeu generally keeled, curved, and the sides compressed to the tip, which
is emarginated ; the nostrils lateral, basal, and generally protected by a
membranous scale ; the winga more or less long and rounded or pointed ;
the tail mostly of moderate length ; the tarsi more or less short, and usually
covered with transverse scales ; the toes of various lengths, and the outer
toe generally longer than the inner one.

These birds are distributed in all parts of the
world. Their food consists principally of insects^
worms, and terrestrial mollusca, and also partly of
fruits. Many of them possess gTcat power of song.

This family includes the Ant -Thrushes, the
Thrushes, the Babblers, the Orioles, and the
Bulbuls.

150

DENTIEOSTRES.

SUB-FAMILY I.

FORMICARIX^.

The Ant-Thrushes.

Gen. Charac. — Bill more or less lonf; and straight, wnth the culmen curved
to the tip, which is emarginated and sometimes slightly hooked, the sides
compressed, and the gonj's modei-ate and ascending ; the nostrils lateral,
placed in a memhranous groove, with the frontal plumes projecting to the
opening, which is exposed ; the wings generally rather short and rounded ;
the tail more or less short, and usually rounded ; the tarsi rather long, and
mostly covered in front with slightly-divided scales ; the toes long and
slender, with the outer toe longer than the inner, and more or less united at
the base.

t

Fig. 61.— the blue pitta.
{P'Ma cyuiiea.)

These birds inliabit tlie tropical portions of
America, where they are usually seen on the ground,
or on the trunks of trees, on which they support
themselves by means of their tails, searching for
ants and other kinds of insects.

The Ant-Thrushes are so called from their ant-
eating propensities : they form a small, but remark-

TUEDID.E. 151

able group of birds^ differing greatly in colour and
dimensions^ but resembling each other considerably
in their general form. Some species are sombrely
clad in blacky broYvm, and white ; while the plumage
of others is adorned with the brightest scarlet, blue,
and purple.

The Garnet-coloured Pitta {Pitta (jranatina) is found
in India, and the neiglibourmg islands, and also in
Western Africa. These birds frequent the jungles and
thick bushes, and, in India, sometimes visit the gardens
and cultivated districts. Their food consists of insects
and worms, which they usually seek for on the ground
by scratching among the fallen leaves ; they are believed,
also, occasionally to feed upon berries and fruits. They
seem to prefer the neighbourhood of water, and are seen
wadmg up to their knees in the shallow streams. If
disturbed, they either seek safety by running away,
which they do very quickly, or by flying to a brancli
of some neighbouring tree, and remaining concealed for
a time amidst the foliage. Like the Thrushes, the male
and female closely resemble each other ; but it is curious
to find that the young are plumed and coloured exactly
like the adult from the time they leave the nest. Most
of the species of Pitta are very beautifully ornamented ;
the colours bemg generally in bright contrast. Some
seek then* iusect-food among the thick cane-beds near
the coast ; others (P. cyaiiea), common in the islands of
the Eastern Archipelago, run very quickly, and keep in
the most sombre j)laces. The adults fight like quails
whenever tliey meet. The nest of the Garnet Pitta is
formed among the bushes near the ground, and is
frequently concealed from view by orchids and other
parasitical plants.

15:

DENTIROSTRES.

;SUB-FAMILY II.

TURDIX.E.

TJie Tkruslies i^Toper.

Gen. Cuahac. — Bill moderate, compressed at the point, upper mandible
notched and bending over the lower one ; gape furnished with a few bristles ;
nostrils basal, lateral, oval, partly covered with a naked membrane ; tarsus
longer than the middle toe ; wings and tail moderate, first primary very
short or almost abortive, second shorter than the third or fourth, which arc
the longest.

Fig. 62. — the misstjl thetjsh.
( Tardus viscivorns. )

The true Thrushes are inferior to the Shrikes in
the structure of theii' bill, which is much less toothed ;
their feet, however, are stronger, and as much adnpted
for walking as for perching. The Blackbird and the
Fieldfare are familiar examples of this perfection of
structure. They make their way upon the ground,
on trees, or in the air, with equal facility. The form
of their bill shows a superior adaptation for general
purposes ; the notch near the point is much slighter
than in the Shrikes, yet it is sufficient to enable
them to retain a firm hold of their prey, while the

TUKDID.i:. 153

superior length of the beak enables them to obtain
food beneath the surface of the soil. Thus we see
them accompanying the Crows during autumn^ in
large flocks^ spread over new-ploughed fields, and
traversing the ground in search of the same kind of
food. The Thrushes devour fruits quite as much as
they do insects. In sweetness, compass, and versa-
tility, their song surpasses that of most of the
feathered race. These birds are found in all parts of
the world ; they are of a shy disposition, and more
or less migratory. The European species retire in
large flocks to temperate regions in the winter
season, returning to the northern countries as sum-
mer approaches. Some frequent the forests, out-
skirts of woods or thickets, and bushes in meadows
and pastures, while others retreat to rocky, moun-
tainous districts. Worms, larvae of insects, and
mollusks form their chief summer subsistence ; while
in the winter they j^hick the berries of various plants.
Many of them utter a loud whistling note, which in
certain seasons is exchanged for a pleasing song,
poured forth from the highest branches of small
trees.

The t}^3e of this sub -family is —

The Missel Thrush (Turdufi vischwrus). Of all the
Thrushes, this species is the most extensively spread
over the old Continents ; bemg not only found in Europe,
but also in the Himalaya mountains, and the high
lands of Asia, at an altitude which affords a temperature
similar to that of our own climate. Thinly dispersed
over the British isles, the Missel Thrush is a solitary
and unsocial bird, differing considerably in its habits
from the common favourite, the Song Thrush, which
delights to dwell in the cultivated precuicts of our
shrubberies and gardens. Affecting remote situations,
it retires from liuman society to pasture lands, wide
commons, or meadows, skirted by orchards or groves,
feeding, like its congeners, on snails, worms, and the
larvae of insects during the spring and summer ; but
resorting to berries, especially those of the mountain ash.

154

DENTIROSTRES.

the haw, and the mistletoe, when autumn and winter
deprive it of its more esteemed fare. The Missel Tln-ush
is one of our earliest breeders ; the commencement of
March bemg with it the season of incubation. It builds
its nest sometimes in orchard trees, at others in those of
more lofty growth, such as the elm or oak ; and the
nest, with a view to its concealment, is artfully placed
either close against the stem, or in a fork of one of the
large branches ; being composed, on the outside, of
coarse lichen, grey moss, or such dried vegetation as may
be found on the spot, corresponding with the colour of
the tree. The materials are carelessly interwoven ; but
within this outside covering is placed a layer of mud,
neatly lined with fine grasses. The eggs are five in
number, of a pale bluish- white, spotted with dull red.

NEST OF SONG THEUSH.

TUEDID^.

155

SUB-FAMILY 11 T.

TiMALIX.E.

The BcMlers.

Gen. Chabac. — Bill moderate, with the cuhnen much curved and the sides
compressed to the tip, which is generally entire or only slightly emarginated,
the gonys long and ascending ; the nostrils basal, and more or less exposed ;
the wings short and much rounded ; the tail of various lengths and gra-
duated; the tarsi lengthened, robust, and covered usually with an entire
scale ; the toes long, strong, and strongly scuteUated above ; the claws
more or less long, compressed and acute.

Fig. 63.— the white- necked babblek.

{FomatorhiuHS albicoIUs.)

These birds are found in small flocks in tlie open
jungles or in cultivated places round tlie villages of
India and Java. They are generally seen on the
ground, more especially near the tranks of large
trees, searching for various kinds of seeds and in-
sects : while thus employed, they continually utter a
low chattering noise, which is occasionally changed
into a low guttural cry ; but sometimes they may be

156 DENTIKOSTKES.

found perclied upon a tree, pouring forth a remark-
ably sweet song. Their nest is built in trees at no
great elevation ; it is composed of small twigs care-
lessly put together : the female usually deposits four
eggs.

The Common Grey Babbler {Timalia grisea) is one of
the commonest l)irds of the Indian Peninsula, where it
may be seen in every garden, and about the hedge-row
avenues, trees, and topes * througliout the Carnatic.

They may often be seen in flocks of six, eight, ten, or
more. They feed chiefly on the ground, to which they
may be seen to drop one after the other from the tree
they may have perched on, and hop briskly about, picking
up various seeds and insects, occasionally seekuig the
latter from heaps of manure. On being driven from the
ground, or leaving it from choice, they fly up successively
as they droj:)ped down, and hop and climb ujoon the large
branches of the nearest tree, seldom stopping till they
have nearly reached the top or the other side, from
which, if still watched, they fly off one after the other
to another tree. These birds have an incessant loud
whispering kind of chatter, which they all repeat at
once, especially when feeding, or on being observed by
any one. The nest of this species is placed in a tree
at no great height : it is made of small twigs and roots
carelessly put together.

The type of this sub-family is the White-necked Bab-
bler {Po7natorhinus albicollis).

* "The vast numbers of plantations made of mango-trees, espe-
cially throughout Bengal, afford ample range to their feathered
inhabitants. Some of these plantations, or ' topes,' are of such
extent, that an army of ten or twelve thousand men might encamp
under shelter. In the hot season, the shade is both pleasant and
salutary ; in the cold months, these woods afford shelter by keeping
off the bleak winds ; and during the rainy portion of the year, those
trees which have the thickest foliage throw the water off from
certain spots, and render them inhabitable." — ^ya'^lace, " Wild
Sx>orts of the TFesf."

TURDICE.

157

SUB-FAMILY IV

Oriolin^.

The Orioles.

Gen. Chakac. — Bill as long as the head, broad at the base, and compressed on
the sides, with the eulmen more or less elevated at the base and curved at
the tip, which is emarginated ; the nostrils lateral, basal, exposed, and
partly covered by a membrane ; the wings long, vrith the first three quills
equally graduated, and the third or fourth the longest ; the tarsi short and
strongly scaled; the toes moderate, and the lateral toes usually unequal.

Fig. 64..— the wedge-billed okiole.
( OrioluH acrorhynchus. )

These migratory birds are met witli in all parts of
the world ; they are usually found solitary or in pairs^
but occasionally in small flocks^ frequenting the
skirts of forests, gardens, and orchards, in quest of
various kinds of fruit and insects. Their flight is
undulating, as they fly from one tree to another, to
search the foliage for caterpillars. They emit a loud,
mellow, plaintive cr}^ The nest is sometimes saucer-

158 DENTIROSTRES.

shaped, and generally placed in the fork of a bough,
t(^ l)oth branches of which it is firmly attached ; but
in some species is long, purse-shaped, and pendu-
lous, hanging from the high branches of trees :
it is constructed of sheep^s wool and long slender
stalks of grass. The eggs are usually four or five
in number.

The Golden Oriole {Oriolus galhula) is a shy and suspi-
cious l^ird, haunting lonely groves, and thickets on the
skirts of woods, excepting m the fruit season, when it
always frequents orchards, to the no small loss of their
owners. It is difficult to get near these birds, though
they are sometimes approached by the sportsman, under
the deception of his imitative Avhistle ; but it requires
great accuracy both of lips and ear to perform this fraud,
for the least mistake or one false note will send the bird
off at once. Tlie food of the Golden Oriole consists of
insects and their larvae, berries, and fruits, among which
figs, grapes, and cherries are favourites. Its whistle is
load and flute-like. Bechstein expresses the sound by
the word jmhlo.

When about to construct its nest, the Golden Oriole
selects the forked extremity of the lower branch of some
high tree, and wreathing the two forks round with straws,
grasses, and other vegetable fibres proper for the purpose,
at length connects the two ends ; and then, continuing
the straws from one side to the other, and crossing and
interweaving them, forms a kind of basket, which is
afterwards thickened with the stems of the finer grasses,
intermixed with mosses and lichens, and lined with
feathers and still softer materials. Almost the whole
genus of Orioles build pensile nests. The Baltimore
Oriole is so solicitous to procure the best materials for
this purpose, that in the season for building, the women
in the country are under the necessity of narrowly
watching their thread that may be out bleaching, and the
farmer of protecting his young grafts ; as the " Baltimore,"
finding the former, and the strings which enwrajj the
latter, so well adapted to the construction of its nest, fre-
(piently carries oft* both, or, should the one be too heavy,
or the other too securely tied, he will tug at them for a
considerable time before he gives up the attempt. Skeins

TURDID-E.

159

of silk and hanks of tliread are often found after the
leaves have fallen, hanging about the nest, but so woven
\ip and entangled as to be quite unreclaimable. Before
the introduction of Europeans, no such materials could

Fig. 65. — >'Est of baltuioee oriolk.

have been obtained in America ; but, with the sagacity of
a good architect, the bird has turned them to account, and
the st?'ongest and best threads are uniformly found in
those parts by which the fabric is supported. The " Bal-
timore " inhabits North America, from Canada to Mexico,
and even as far south as Brazil. Since the streets have
been planted with Lombardy poplars, these birds are con-
stantly in the habit of boldly entering the towns, where,
amid the noise and tumult of coaches, drays, wheelbar-
rows, and the din of the multitude, they are heard chanting
" their native w^ood-notes wild."

\{\n

[)i;N'ri!;(»sTi;F.

SVn-FAMILY y

Pvcnonotin.eJ

The Jlnlhnh.

Gkn. Chahac —Bill usually short, with the culmen curved, and the sides com-
pressed to the tip, which is emarfjinated ; the gape furnished with more or
less lengthened bristles ; the nostrils basal, and placed in a short membranous
groove ; the wings moderate and rounded ; the tail long, broad, and gene-
rally rounded at the end ; the tarsi as long as, or shorter than, the middle
toe, and generally covered by an entire scale ; the toes moderate, the outer
toe sometimes longer than the inner, and united at the base, the hind toe long

Fig. tj(3. — THE YELLOW PYCNOXOTtS.

{Pi/f»o)iotitxJl(iviihi )

These birds are found in the southern parts of
Europe ; also in Africa, Asia, and the Indian Archi-
pelago. They frequent trees in the open country, in
pairs or in small parties, and are usually seen hopping
from branch to branch in search of fruits, berries,
and insects ; they sometimes commit great depreda-

■'• TTVKvor, pycnos, hmad ; vCoroc, notos, the hacl; ; Broad-backed.

TUEDID^E. 1(31

tions in gardens, flying' iii ^ direct line from tree to
tree, with a quick flapping of the wings, and usually
uttering at the same time a whistling note; they
have also the power of imitating the cries of various
birds. The Bulbuls, so well known by repeated
references to them in Oriental writings, are many of
them possessed of remarkably sweet voices, and are
popularly called Nightingales. They are easily
tamed, and can be taught to perform many interest-
ing tricks. One species is kept for the purpose of
fighting, and is trained mth this object, as game-
cocks were formerly trained, for the amusement of
their cruel owners. In a wild state, they are gene-
rally found in the woods and jungles, but are in the
habit of visiting gariiens for the sake of feeding upon
the ripened fruits and insects. They are all exotic
birds, and are all natives of the Eastern hemisphere.

The Jocose Bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus) is an Indian
species, a constant visitor both in woods and gardens ; it
is active and lively, always on the move, and contmually
warbling its pleasant notes, which are possessed of con-
siderable sweetness. The food of these birds consists
l)rincipally of fruits and seeds, but they also eat insects.
They are great favourites with the Hindoos, who train
tljem to sit upon the hand, and carry them to their
bazaars and other places of resort.

The type of this suV)-ff\mily is —

The Yellow Pycnonotus (Pycnonotus flavida).

162 DEXTIROSTEES.

FAMILY III.

MusciCAPiD.E.* Tlie FlycatcJiern.

Gen, Chaeac. — Bill of various lengths, generally broad and depressed at the
base, with the culmeu more or less curved, and the sides compressed to the
tip, which is eraarginate ; the gape usually furnished with long and strong
bristles ; wings generally long ; tail more or less long, and the outer toe
generally united at the base.

The Flycatchers, as their name imports, feed
exchisively upon insects, which are captured by
their bill during flight ; their organization is, there-
fore, in strict conformity with this habit. The
wings are not formed for such rapidity of movement
as those of the Swallows, since the Flycatchers do not
pursue their prey to any distance; but this deficiency
is compensated by a very unusual breadth of the
mouth, the sides of which are moreover furnished
with long rigid bristles pointing forwards. Thus pro-
vided, the Flycatcher darts upon an insect with
unerring certainty, since, if it fails to get a firm
hold of it with its beak, the bristles standing out
on each side restrain the struggles of its \4ctim,
and at the same time prevent either its eyes or face
from being injui^ed by the claws or wings of the
insect. This structure is slightly developed in
several groups of the Warblers, and, indeed, the
two families are so closely related, that Ornithologists
are perpetually confounding the one mth the other.
Both are fly-catching families, but with some re-
markable diff'erences. The Warblers pursue the
chase from tree to tree, — they are continually
wandering about and hunting up their game ;
whereas the true Flycatchers are sedentary ; they
choose some convenient station, generally near their
nest, from which they dart upon their prey, and
after every captm'e almost invariably return to the
same perch. The family of the Flycatchers in-
cludes the Mourners, the Alectrures, the Tyrants, the
Becards, the True Flycatchers, and the Greenlets.

* Musca, a fy ; capio, to catch.

MUSCICAPID.E.

SUB- FAMILY I.

QUERULIN.E.

The Moicr

G-EK. Charac. — Bill rather long, slightly depressed, and broad at the base,
with the culmen gradually curved, and the sides gradually compressed to
the tip, which is emarginated ; the gape furnished with short bristles ; the
nostrils oval, and more or less covered by the frontal plumes ; the wings
more or less long, with the third and fourth quills the longest ; the tail long
and broad; the tarsi short ; the toes rather short, the outer toe the longest
and united at the base ; the claws long, much curved, and acute.

-y^^^i^'^-^^ \0\,^^^

Fig. 67.— the bright-sided querula.
{Lipangus lateralis.)

Tliese birds inhabit Guiana, where they reside in
the woods, and live upon insects and fruits. They
are of a lively disposition, and constantly in motion ;
collecting together in flocks, and seem particularly
to cultivate the society of the Toucans, generally
flying before these birds and uttering their sharp
cry, " pi-au-hau,^^ from which they derive their

164

DENTIROSTRES.

vernacular appellation. Their nest is placed on
higli inaccessible branches of the forest trees. The
female is said to lay four eggs.

The type of this sub -family is —

The Bright-sided duerula {Lipangus lateralis).

MUSCJCAPID.E.

lO:

SUB-FA21ILY II.

Alectrurix.e.*

The Alectruvi

Gen. Chahac. — Bill of various lengths, broad at the base and rather depressed,
with the cuhnen sloping and rounded, the sides gradually compressed to the
tip, which is emarginated ; the gonys long and slightly ascending; the nos-
trils basal, rounded, and exposed ; the wings more or less long ; the tail of
various lengths and forms ; the tarsi more or less long and slender ; the toes
usually moderate, and armed with long, acute, curved claws.

FiG. 68.— THE ULUE-BEAKED ALECTEUEE.

(Fluvicola cyanirostris.)

The Cock-tailed Flycatchers are so called from
their habit of raising their long and curiously-formed
tail^ in a manner similar to that of the domestic
fowl. They are only found in South America, and
are all of small dimensions, their average length
being about six inches. There are many species of

* Alector, a poetical name for the ham-door cock ; ovod, oura.
a tail ; Cock-tailed.

I 3

\i)C) DENTIROSTRES.

this group, and they differ considerably in theii
habits and in the localities they frequent ; some are
fond of forest lands, perching upon lofty branches,
and fluttering from their post in search of passing
insects ; while others shun the wooded districts, and
are only found upon low-lying ground, where water
is plentiful, and where they find their insect food
upon the leaves and stems of aquatic plants. Among
these —

The Pied Alectrurus (Aledrurus tricolor) is re-
markable. It is a native of tropical South America,
and nearly six inches in length, pied with black and
white, but with its back ash-colour. It generally
inhabits the vicinity of water, flies lightly, and
perches upon rushes and other slender stems, but
not upon the branches of trees. The male some-
times rises perpendicularly to a height of thirty or
forty feet by rapid beats of its wings ; and when
thus engaged, he looks more like a large black-and-
white butterfly than a bird.

The typical form of this sub-family is —

The Bliie-heaked Alectrure [Fluvkola cyaMirostris).

MUSCICAPID.E.

MY

SUB-FAMILY III.

Tyrannin.e.

TJie TyraiUa.

Gen. Charac. — Bill more or less long, broad, and depressed at the base, and
the sides gradually compressed to the tip, which is hooked and emarginated ;
the gape sometimes furnished with long and strong bristles ; the nostrils
basal, with the oj)ening small, usually rounded, and hidden by the pro-
jecting feathers and bristles ; the wings more or less long, and generally
pointed ; the tail moderate, and sometimes emarginated ; the tarsi short and
covered with broad scales ; the toes generally rather short, tbe outer longer
than the inner, and united at the base, the hind toe moderate and padded
beneath ; the claws rather short, and very acute.

Fig. 69 —the lizaed-eateb.

{Saurophagus lictor.)

The birds wliicli constitute the typical sub -family
of the Flycatchers are generally seen sitting on
trees, or on some prominent place, watching the
approach of any insect rover, in pursuit of which
they make a sweep, and having seized it, return to
the same perch. It is not uncommon to see them

168 DENTIROSTRES.

take post on a twig overlianging water, into wliicli
they will dive repeatedly,, and tlien remain for some
time quiet to dry and dress tlieir plumage in tlie sun.
They also prey on small fish and reptiles, and oc-
casionally feed on berries. Their flight is quick and
rapid, and they may sometimes be observed hovering
over the fields and rivers, as if watching for their
food, which, having espied, they secure by a sudden
swoop. Some of the species are remarkable for
their courage, especially during the breeding season.
Should a crow, hawk, or even an eagle, approach
their nest, they launch into the air, mount to a con-
siderable height above him, and dart down on his
back, sometimes to the great annoyance of the
intruder, who endeavours by various evolutions to
rid himself of his Lilliputian adversary. The nest
is built in trees, at no great height from the ground ;
exteriorly it is composed of twigs, well woven
together with tow and wool, and lined with dry
fibres, grass, and horsehair. Some species collect
together loose hay, feathers of birds, hog^s bristles,
pieces of cast-off snake^s skins, and dog's hair, in
the hollow of a tree. The eggs are usually four or
five in number.

The hero of this sub -family —

The Tyrant Flycatcher (Tyrannus intrepidus), called
also the King-ljird, is an example of an American group
of Flycatchers in which the bill is large and strong, approx-
imating that of the Shrike. The names of king and
tyrant bestowed upon this bird refer to the extraordinary
authority which he arrogates to himself during the breed-
ing season, over all the rest of the feathered creation. " A.t
this period," says Wilson, " Ins extreme affection for his
mate, and for his nest and young, makes him suspicious of
every bird that happens to pass near his residence, so that
he attacks, without discrmiination, every intruder. In
the months of May, June, and part of July, his life is one
continued scene of broils and battles, in which, however,
he generally comes off conqueror. Hawks and Crows,
the Bald Eagle and the Great Black Eagle, all equally

MUSCICAPID,E. 169

clread an encounter with tliis dauntless little champion,
who, as soon as he perceives even one of these last ap-
jiroaching, launches out into the air to meet him, mounts
to a considerable height above him, and darts down on his
back, sometimes fixing there, to the great annoyance of
his sovereign, who, if no convenient retreat or resting-
place be near, endeavours in vain to rid himself of his
merciless adversary. He teases the Eagle incessantly,
sweej^s npon him from right to left, remounts, that he
may descend on his back with greater violence, all the
while keeping up a shrill and rapid twittering, and con-
tinuing the attack, sometimes for more than a mile, till
he is relieved by some other of his tribe, equally eager for
the contest." This quarrelsome demeanour is laid aside
by the King- bird at the close of the breeding season, and
he then becomes a peaceable denizen of the wood or of the
orchard. The nest of the Tyrant Flycatcher is built on
the branch of a tree, and composed of small twigs and
dried flowers, interwoven with hemp and wool, and made
very compact : the lining consists of fine grass and horse-
hair. The eggs, which are usually five in number, are
cream-coloured, with a few large purple spots, and small
pale-l)rown markings, chiefly at the larger end. The only
s(^ng of this bird is a shrill twitter. His food consists
])rinci})ally of insects, which he captures, sometimes by
flying steadily over the fields, and sometimes in the manner
of the ordinary Flycatcher, by taking his position on the
summit of a post or rail, and sweeping ofi:' after them as
they pass.

The typical form of this group of birds is —

The Lizard-eater {Saurophagus lictor).

170

DENTIROSTEES.

SCn-FAMILY IV.

TiTYRIX.E."

The Becards.

Gen. Chaeac. — Bill generally short and broad at the base, with the culmen
slightly depressed, rounded, and curved, and the sides suddenly compressed
to the tip, which is emarginated ; the nostrils lateral, rounded, and exposed ;
the wings long and pointed ; the tail short and rounded on the sides ; the
tarsi short, and covered in front with narrow scales ; the toes moderate,
with the lateral ones nearly equal ; the claws moderate, curved, and acute.

Fig. 70.— the white-backed tityba.
{Titi/ra leuconotus.)

The birds composing this sub-family are found in
the warmer parts of South Ainerica and the islands
of the West Indies. They migrate from place to

* " Tityre, tu patulse recubans sub tegmine fo.gi," —
in allusion to their sylvan habits.

MUSCICAPID.E. 171

place^ and are usually seen perched upon tlie highest
branches of the lofty trees of the prune val forests.
Insects form their chief subsistence ; these they
capture by short flights^ and return again to the
same perch, to watch for others passing within a
certain range.

We extract from Mr. Gosse^s beautiful work on
the Birds of Jamaica the following account of —

The White-hacked Tityra {Tityra leuconotus). " This
species of Tityra is not uncommon in the mountain dis-
tricts of Jamaica, where, from the remarkable diversity in
the appearance of tlie male and female, they are distin-
guished by separate local names. The black male is
known by the feminine appellation of Judy, while the
chestnut-headed female receives the masculine soubriquet
of Mountain Dick. Though more frequently seen at a
considerable elevation from the sea, we occasionally meet
with these birds in the lowlands ; they are, however,
rather recluse, aifecting woods and lonely places. Here,
as they hop from one twig to another, or sit hidden in the
foliage of a thick tree, they utter a rapid and not un-
nnisical succession of notes, as if attemptmg to compress
them all mto one. The notes are occasionally poured
forth in the au', as the bird flits from tree to tree, but are
very frequently heard from the male and female alternately,
seated on two trees, perhaps on opposite sides of the road,
thus : — The Mountain Dick calls, and the Judy immedi-
ately answers ; then a littje pause, — another call from
Mountaui Dick, and an instant answer from Judy, until,
after a succession of such salutations, the Judy gallantly
yields the point, and flies over to the other tree to join
his friend. This species is fierce and bold m self-defence.
When shot, and but slightly wounded, it would make
vigorous efibrts to escape by running ; but on being taken
in the hand, and held by the legs, it would elevate the
crown feathers, turn the head up, and bite fiercely at the
fingers, pmcliing the flesh with all its force ; striving, at
the same time, to clutch with its claws, and screaming
vociferously. It does not appear to pursue other birds,
after the manner of the true Tyrants, nor capture insects
in the air, notwithstanding that the gape is defended by

1 72 DEXTIROSTRES.

stiff' bristles. Stationary insects are usually tlie contents
of its stomach, particularly tlie large field-bugs {Peatatoma),
and caterpillars, and sometimes the eggs of insects. In
the winter, the berries of the Jjursera, or Tropic Birch,
constitute a large portion of its food. In April, the Judy
begins to arrange the domestic economy of the season,
and if the cradle of his young be not so elaborate a struc-
ture as some others, it makes up in quantity what it
lacks in quality. On a branch of a small cedar that
ov^erhangs the high road," says Mr. Gosse, " I had noticed,
early in June, what appeared to be a heap of straw tossed
u}) by a fork and lodged there, which the action of the
weather had in some degree smoothed at the top, the ends
trailing downwards. One day, however, as I was looking
at it, I saw the brown female of this sj^ecies emerge from
the bottom, and presently return, entering at a narrow
hole beneath. As it was not more than twelve feet from
the ground, I immediately sent my lads to climb the tree
and cut the branch, which they accordingly brought me,
with the huge nest attached. The boys re]3orted that it
was empty, and that it had four entrances; but on exam-
ination, I found that every one of these was merely a
hollow in the immense walls, produced by the receding
of one jmrt of the loose materials fi'om another. While
they held it up in the 2)osition it had occupied on the tree,
I searched beneath for tlie true entrance, which, when I
had found it, I had much difficulty to fiud again, so con-
cealed was it amono; the drasfo-lino; ends of the mass. On
inserting my finger, however, I felt the soft and warm
})lumage of young bii-ds, and pulled out three almost fully
fledged." The nest was a flattened oblong mass ; flattened
on two sides, measuring in height about two feet and a
half, thouo;h the ends hung down to the length of four
feet ; in width more than two feet, and in thickness one
foot. It was composed almost entii-ely of the stems a]id
tendrils of passion-flowers, mixed, however, and that all
through the structure, with bright yellow silky sj^iders'
nests, and the downy filaments of some cottony lierbs.
The cavity was not larger than a man's two fists, and
was not in any way lined. It descended within the
entrance, although the latter faced the ground.

MUSCICAP1D.E.

SUB-FAMILY V.
MusciCAPix.E. Tlie Flycatchers Proper.

Gex. Charac. — Bill moderate, broad at the base and narrowing to the tip,
which is emarginated ; the culmen more or less depressed and curved
at the end ; the goujs usuallj' long and ascending, and the gape furnished
with bristles ; the wings generally long, and more or less pointed ; the tarsi
usually short and slender, and the toes short, with the outer toe longer than
the inner one, the hind toe prominent ; and the claws moderate, compressed,
and acute.

i

Al

Fig, 71.— the spotted flycatcher.
{Muscicapa grisola.)

The true Flycatchers are found in most parts of
the Old Continent. They appear in the temperate
regions during the winter_, and retire to the colder
climates during the summer, mostly frequenting
wooded districts, cultivated grounds, gardens, and
orchards. Their food consists entirely of insects,
which they watch for, seated on a decaying bough
or post, and catch on the wing, when they approach
within a certain distance. The nest is formed in
the forks of branches, or in the holes of trees. It is

174 UEXTIROSTRES.

coin posed of leaves, moss, or hay, and small twigs,
lined with hair and feathers. The female lays four
or five 'eggs. These birds are of small size, and weak
in. their general conformation; none are so large
as a sparrow. Their bill is flattened, and their
whole structure light and delicate. Their colouring,
thouo-h eleo^ant, is devoid of vivid tints.

A¥e select for description —

The Spotted Flycatcher (Musciccqm grisola). This
pretty little l>ird is one of our summer visitors, arriving
in our island in May, and departing at the close of
September. The Flycatcher is retired in its habits, fre-
quenting embowered retreats, shady gardens, orchards
and groves, where the foliage affords it concealment ; not,
indeed, that it is timid, for, if not rudely disturbed, it
will allow itself to be closely watched during the per-
formance of its aerial evolutions in pursuit of its insect
food. It generally chooses for its perch and observatory,
the bough of a fruit-tree, or one of the lower branches
of the elm ; whence it takes short, abrupt, circling flights,
returnmg to the same, or to an adjacent twig ; darting
in chase of its prey at almost regukir mtervals for half
an hour together, and returning after each flight to the
same post of observation. The note of the Flycatcher is
a weak chirp, which is seldom uttered after the appear-
ance of the young brood. Its nest is built in various
situations, as convenience may dictate ; sometimes between
the branch of a trained fruit-tree and the wall, or m holes
in the wall, hidden by foliage. It will also build in the
holes of aged trees, or upon the ends of beams in outhouses,
or, in short, in any appropriate place of concealment. The
eggs are five in number, of a greyish-white, marked with
pale orange-brown spots. When the young are able to fly,
the parents lead them to some branch, and supply them
with food ; but they soon learn to chase their own prey,
and become expert and quick in the pursuit. Pennant
and other writers state that the Flycatcher is partial
to cherries and various fruits ; this is unquestionably a
mistake ; soft insects are its only food ; but gardeners
seem to think that all birds devom* fruit, and frequent
their gardens only for that purpose.

MUSCICAPID.E.

17:

SUB-FAMILY VI.

ViREONIN.E.

TJie Greenleh

Gen. Char AC— Bill rather short and straight, with the culmen slightly curved,
and the sides compressed to the tip, which is curved and emarginated ; the
gonys long and ascending ; the gape furnished ATith short weak bristles ;
the nostrils rounded and exposed ; the wings rather long and pointed ; the
tail moderate ; the tarsi moderate, and covered with broad scales ; the toes
moderate, the lateral ones equal, and united at the base, especially the
outer.

/" /

Fig. 72 —the greenlet.
(Vireo virescens.)

The Greenlets are so called on account of the
constant presence of green on some part of their
plumage. They are all little birds^ and are confined
to the New World, inhabiting the United States,
Brazil, Guiana, and the West India islands. They
are mostly insect-feeders, but will vary their diet
with fruits, berries, and other vegetable food. Many
species are known, and some are remarkable for

176

DENTIROSTRES.

their eccentric liabits and curious mode of nesting.
Some of them build a neat nest, in the form of an
inverted cone, suspended by the upper edge. The
materials of which the walls are composed are frag-
ments of rotten wood, dry stalks, and similar articles;
and it is remarkable that amongst these, pieces of
paper are always found. Wilson says that the bird
exhibits so great a predilection for fragments of
newspapers, that some of his friends gave it the
name of " The Politician." The materials of this
pretty nest are held together with the silk of cater-
pillars, and the lining consists of fine dry grass and
hair.

The typical species is —
The Greenlet ( Vireo virescens).

AMPELID.E. 1 / /

FAMILY IV.

AiiPELiD.E. I'he Chatterers.

Gen. Chakac. — Bill moderate, more or less broad at the base and more or
less depressed, with the sides gradually compressed to the tip, which is
emarginated ; the wings long, and generally rounded ; the tail moderate,
and usually even at the end; the tarsi generally short and slender; the toes
moderate, with the outer more or less united to the base of the middle one ;
the claws short and curved.

In the members of tliis family, the notches,
characteristic of the dentirostral birds, though
small, are always distinctly to be seen on each side
of the tip of the bill, which is rather short, broad,
and depressed at the base, so that, when viewed
from above, it is nearly triangular. The wings are
generally long and the tail short ; the feet are
slender, and the toes terminated by curved acute
claws grooved along their lower surface. Most of
them are met mth in the warmer latitudes, where
they feed upon insects and fruits. Their plumage
is often very beautiful and brilliant in its colouring.

The Chatterers are remarkable for the width of
their gape, which, in many, is nearly as mde as that
of a Groatsucker : they live almost entirely on soft
berries and small fruits, which, being swallowed
whole, require a very wide passage down the throat.
They are perpetually hopping about among the
branches of fruit -bearing trees, and seem to know,
by wonderful instinct, the period when each species
yields its fruit. They never walk upon the ground,
the structure of their feet being only adapted for
grasping boughs. These birds are most of them con-
fined to the American continent ; many of them are
remarkable for the splendid tints of azure and purple
with which, in the pairing season, the males are be-
dizened, but during the rest of the year the two sexes
are equally clad in grey or brown plumage.

To this family belong the Thick-heads, the Mana-
kins, the Chatterers proper, the Caterpillar-eaters,
and the Drongo Shrikes.

178

DEXTIROSTRES.

SUB-FAMILY T.
Pachycephalix.e.* lite Thick-ltPMds.

Gen. Chakac- Bill broad at the base and compressed to the tip, which is
emarginated; the gape furnished with a few slender In-istles ; the wings
moderate and more or less rounded ; the tarsi lengthened and slender; the
toes long, with the outer one slightly united at the base to the middle one ;
(he claws short and curved.

Fig. 73.— the ked-bbeasted thick-head.
{Pteruthiuti ruficentritf.)

Many of these birds are peculiar to Australia ;
some are met witli in tlie East Indies and in South
America; others in New Guinea and the islands
of the South Seas. They are generally observed^
solitary or in pairs^ creeping and hopping among

* TraxvQ-, pachys, thick ; KtcpaXi), cephale, the head ; Thick-heads.

AMPELID.E. 1 79

the foliage of tlie upper part of lofty trees in thick
forests, or on shrubs. Their food consists of berries
and of the larvae of insects. The nest is formed on
the small horizontal branches of large trees or in
bushes, and is composed of interwoven twigs or
fibrous roots. The egg's are three or more in
number. Some species excavate a hole just large
enough to admit the passage of their body, extending
two or three feet in a nearly horizontal direction :
at the end of this tunnel a chamber is formed,
wherein the nest is constructed. In such cases, the
nest itself is a beautiful structure, formed of strips
of the inner bark of Eucalypti, and lined with
finer fibres of the same or similar material.

As an example of the group we select —

The Yellow-breasted Thick-head {Pachycephala gut-
turcdis), an inhabitant of South Australia. " This species
is rather abundantly dispersed over the forests of Eu-
calypti and the belts of Acacia, among the flowering
branches of which the male displays himself to the
greatest advantage, and shows off his rich yellow breast,
as if desirous of outvying the beautiful blossoms with
which he is surrounded. Its principal food consists of
insects of various genera, which are sought for and
captured among the flowers and leaves as well as on the
ground. It is generally met with in j^airs, but the males
are more shy than the females. It flies in short and
sudden starts, and seldom mounts far above the tops of
the trees. The voice of the male is a suigle note seven
or eight times repeated, and terminating with a sharp
higher note, much resembling the smack of a whip. That
)f the female is very different, bemg a series of runnhig
aalf-notes, forming a rather plaintive tune." — Gould.

The typical form is —

The Red-breasted Thick-head {Fteruthius rvfiverdris).

180

DEXTIKOSTRES.

SUB-FAMILY II.

PiPKIX.E.

The Manakins.

Gen. Chaeac. — Bill moderate, or short, and rather depressed, with the base
very broad ; the culmeu curved, and the sides compressed to the tip, which
is emarginated ; the nostrils lateral, and more or less hidden by the pro-
jecting plumes; the wings moderate and pointed; tail very short and even ;
tarsi more or loss long and rather slender, with the outer toe united to
l)(\V()n(l lhi> second joint of the middle toe, and the inner slightly uuili'd.

Fig. 74.— tue streaked manakin.
(Pipm xfrioldfd.)

Most of these birds are found in tlie tropical
regions of America^ or the forests of Sumatra and
Singapore. They inhabit hot humid woods, in the
skirts of which they live in flocks, searching for
insects and small fruits. They are very lively and
restless, and are frequently seen on the ground or
sometimes perched on trees. The note of one
species has been compared to the cracking of a nut.

AMPELID.E. 181

Some of tlieni dwell in extensive woods, or in pre-
cipitous places formed by torrents ; these are most
usually seen on the fallen trunks of trees that have
been rooted up by hurricanes. Their flight is low,
and they seem restless, continually making quick
and fluttering movements while on the branches.
Their food consists principally of the fruits of a
species of laurel and other shrubs. Their note is a
hoarse repetition of the syllable "ket, ket, ket/'
forcibly uttered in a very sharp tone. The female
builds her nest in a sinuosity of the rocks, shelter-
ing it under some projecting point. It is properly
of a circular form, but occasionally the shape is
varied with the windings of the rocks. The nest
is composed of a tissue of the fibres of roots
plastered externally with moistened earth, and lined
internally with fine vegetable fibres and hair. The
young do not quit the nest until nearl}^ full grown.

The t}^e of this race is —

The Streaked Manakin {Pipra striolata).

182

DKNTIROSTRE?

SUB-FAMIJA' III.

Ampklin.e.

The Chatterers proper.

Gen. Chabac— Bill more or less long, with the gape very wide, the cubnen
rather depressed and curved to the tip, which is emarginated, the sides com-
pressed towards the apex; the gonj's long and ascending; the nostrils
latei-al, mostly exposed, and somewhat oval ; the wings moderate, with the
second to the fourth quills generally the longest ; the tail generally short
and even; the tarsi mostly short ; and the toes long, the outer toe slightly
united at the base.

^'^^x^^^Ky \^ -^^^ ^ >

Fig. 75. — the Bohemian chatterer.
(A mpclig (ja )•)'!( la . )

The birds composing this sub-family inhabit the
northern parts of Europe^ Asia^ and North America,
and are migratory^ according to the seasons, making
their appearance in more temperate latitudes on the
approach of winter, and returning to their northern
haunts in the summer. They are usually met with
in small parties, but sometimes assemble in large

AMPELID.E. 183

flocks, consisting of many liundreds, especially
wlieu on tlieir migrations. Their food consists of
various kinds of fruit ; and as tke fruits become
scarce tliey feed on insects, capturing them in the
same way as the Flycatchers. Their nest is placed
in the fork of a tree some few feet from the ground ;
it is composed of coarse grass, lined within ^vith
fine materials, on which are deposited three or four
eo'o's.

The only European example, and the type of the
race, is —

The Bohemian or Wandering Wax-wing {Ampelis
garrula), so called on account of its migrations. In its
habits, the Wax-wing resembles the Tits, and it feeds on
fruits, berries, and seeds, as well as insects. Its most
distinctive feature, however, is, that in the adult bird
four of the secondary quills, and several of the tertials,
are terminated by flat palettes, resembling red sealing-
wax, attaclied to the extremity of the shaft of each
featlier ; and from this circumstance it has received the
appropriate name of Wax-wing.

The Wax- wings are gregarious birds, assembling iu
large flocks, and congregating so closely together that
numbers have been killed by the discharge of a smgle
gun. " Near Christiania, in Norway," writes a corres-
pondent to the Field newspaper, " there have been for
the last month immense flocks of Wax- wing Chatterers
quite close to the house. They are not at all shy,
allowmg a person to approach easily withm shot. They
come into all the gardens round, by thousands, in quest
of the berries of a tree, which I believe is the mountain
ash. Some of the flocks contained several thousands,
but are now diminished in numbers, on account of some
having gone southwards, and others ha\'mg been killed.
They make a great noise when sitting together, as they
do m large numbers. On one occasion I killed twenty
at one shot, at another eighteen, and at another seventeen.
So exactly do the red ornaments of the wings and tail
resemble sealing-wax, that it is difficult to persuade an
unaccustomed observer that they are the gifts of nature,
and not rather purposely attached to the bird by some
one desirous to impose on his credulitv."
K 2

184

DE^'TTKOSTKES.

SUB-FAMILY IV.

Campephagin.e.'"' Tlie Caterpillar- eatei's.

Gen. Charac. — Bill short and rather depressed, with the culmen slightly
curved, and the sides compressed to the tip, which is emarginated, and
sometimes hooked ; the gape furnished with a few short bristles; the nostrils
basal, rounded, and more or less exposed ; the wings moderate, with the
third, fourth, and fifth quills the longest ; the tail long and rounded on the
sides ; the tarsi short and covered with transverse scales; the toes generally
short, and the lateral ones unequal ; the claws moderate, compressed, and
much curved.

Fig. 76.— the braceleted caterpillak-eater.
{Ftilogonys armillatits.)

These birds are found in Africa and Australia^ as
well as in India and tlie neiglibouring islands.
They are shy and wary, and are usually seen upon
trees slowly and carefully searching among the
foliasre and examining the leaves for all kinds of

* ifa/JTT?;, canipe, a caterinllar ; ^oyw, phago, to cat ; Caterpillar-
eater.

AMPELIDJi:. 185

soft insects^ sucli as caterpillars^ niantides, and grass-
hoppers ; moreover_, they occasionally feed on the
fruit of the banyan tree. They continue their search,
hopping from branch to branch, until every bough
has been carefully inspected, when they fly off
together to another tree. Their flight is undulating,
powerful, and performed with few vibrations of the
wings. They rarely fly, except to pass from one por-
tion of the forest to another, or occasionally to take
insects on the wing as they pass within a certain
distance from them when perched. Their eggs are
usually two in number, and are deposited in a nest
placed on the fork of a bough. It is composed of
small dead twigs firmly matted together with a very
fine white downy substance like a cobweb, inter-
mixed with a species of lichen, and is extremely
shallow.

The typical species is —

The Braceleted Caterpillar-eater {Ptilogonys armil-
latus).

186

DENTIROSTRES.

DlCRURIX^.'

SUn-FAMlLY V.

The DroiKjo Shi^ihes.

Gen. Chaeac— Bill of various lengths, broad at the base, with the culmen
more or less keeled and curved to the tip, the sides compressed ; the nostrils
usually concealed by short compact plumes, and the gape furnished with
strong bristles; the wings long, with the fourth and fifth quills generally the
longest ; the tarsi and toes short, and strongly seutellated.

Fig. 77. — the azure-breasted ieena.
(Irena cijano(jasier.)

The Drongos are iuliabitants of Iiidia^ its Archi-
pelago, and the continent of Africa. They are
usually seen singly, in pairs, or in small parties,
perched on some elevated spot or upon the backs of
cattle when grazing. From these stations they
watch passing insects, and when they observe one,
give rapid chase after it, sometimes returning to

* ^iq, dis, double ; ovpa, oura, a tail ; Having a forked tail.

AMPELID.E. 187

tlie same perch to await the approach of other
victims. Some are said to hunt in small parties,
though at a distance from each other ; others fly from
tree to tree at a great elevation, making swoops
after insects in their progress. They show much
courage in attacking bu^ds far superior to them-
selves in size, and their great speed of flight enables
them to attack and retreat with ease and safety.
Some species, when about to seek a new locality,
congregate in hundreds during the evening, and all
roost together in bamboo and other thick jungles.
All kinds of insects fall a prey to their beaks.
Their nest is placed in the fork of a tree. It is
composed of roots and tmgs carelessly put together,
and not lined interiorly. The eggs are about three
in number.

The typical species is —

The Azure-breasted Irena {Irena cycmogaster).

188 DENTIROSTRES.

FAMILY V.

Laniid.e. Tlce Jjutcher-hlnls.

Gkn. Chakac— Bill more or less long, strong, and straight, witli the culmen
curved, and the sides compressed to the tip, which is generally hooked and
emarginated ; the gonys long and ascending ; the gape sometimes furnished
with short bristles ; wings moderate, rounded, or pointed ; tail more or less
lengthened, and usually rounded; the tarsi strong, and more or less long ;
toes moderate, with the hind toe long and broadly padded beneath; the
claws long, curved, and very acute.

The majority of tlie species belonging to tliis
family are inhabitants of the Eastern hemisphere^ a
few only being found in the New World. Their food
consists of insects^ worms^ and mollusca ; but many
of them, not content with such humble fare, kill and
devour the smaller birds and quadrupeds. In fact,
the hooked tip of the bill, the strong tooth-like
fangs with which the upper mandible is armed, and
the curved and acute claws, seem at once to indicate
that the character of these birds is more predacious
than that of their nearest allies. By Linnaeus, and
several of the older naturalists, they were classed
with the Accipitres : indeed the Shrikes almost equal
the Falcons in ferocity and daring. From their
perch upon a bough they will suddenly dart upon their
prey, which they kill with their beak, not with their
feet. They have, moreover, the singular habit of
impaling their victims upon a thorn, or hanging up
small birds by the tendons of their wing : hence they
have received the name of " Butcher-birds.^^ They
resemble the Thrushes, with which they insensibly
blend, and, like them, are generally met with in
woods and coppices. These birds live in companies,
fly with unequal and precipitate flight, uttering
sharp cries ; they construct their nests with much
neatness upon trees, and lay five or six eggs. They
possess the faculty of accurately imitating the notes
of the birds living in their vicinity.

This family comprehends the Butcher-birds and
the Bush Shrikes.

LANIID.T<:.

189

Laniin.e.

SUB-FAMILY I.

The Butcher-hirds iwoper.

Gbn. Chabac. — Bill moderate aVid strong, with the euhnen curved, and the
sides generally much compressed near the tip, which is mostly hooked and
emarginated ; the gape sometimes furnished with short bristles ; the nostrils
lateral and rounded ; the wings more or less long, and generally rounded ;
the tail of various lengths, and usually rounded; the tarsi rather short and
strong; the toes rather long and strong, with the lateral ones generally
unequal, the outer toe the longest, and united at its base, the hind toe long
and broadly padded.

Fig.

-THE LONG-TAILED BlTTCHEKBrRD.

{Lunias coUurio.)

The Butclier-birds are found tlirougliout Europe,
Asia, Africa, and America. They are usually seen
singly or in pairs, in woody or in bushy places.
Their food consists of various kinds of insects, which
they usually seize on the ground or from among the
foliage, and even occasionally pm*sue while on the
wing; they also attack lizards, small birds, and
quadrupeds, which they destroy by strangulation.
K 3

190

DENTIROSTRES.

When life is extinct, tliey fix their prey on a tliorn
while feeding on it. Their courage is very great,
and prompts them to attack birds of far superior
size, should they approach their haunts. Their
flight is undulating, usually performed by jerks ; and
while perched on a branch their tail is in constant
motion. Their nest is placed in trees or bushes,
and is composed of moss, wool, and dry grass, lined
internally with hair. The eggs are five or seven in
number.

The tj^e of this sub-fiimily is —

The Long-tailed Butcher-bird {Lanius coUurio).

LAXIIIXE.

]1>1

SUB-FAMILY II.
Thamxophilix.e. The Bush Shrikes.

Gen. Chakac. — Bill more or less lengthened, compressed on the sides ; the
culmen straight but arched, hooked, and emarginated at the tip ; the gape
more or less bristled ; the nostrils basal, lateral, and mostly rounded ; the
wings moderate, and more or less rounded ; the tail usually long and rounded ;
the tarsi moderate, and covered with broad scales; the toes moderate, tlie
lateral ones unequal, and the outer toe united to the middle one at the I)ase.

Fig. 79. — the MAmr-coLOiTEED btjsh shrike.
{Layiiarius multicolor.)

Most of tliese birds inliabit tlie tropical parts of
America, yet a few of tlie species extend northwards
as far as Canada. They usually reside in the forests,
searching the foliage of the low bushes and the trunks
of trees for the Coleopterous and other insects upon
which they subsist. Their nests are usually placed
in thick bushes, at no great distance from the ground;
the exterior is frequently made of small spinous

192 DENTIROSTIiES.

brandies^ the interior lined witli liair. Their eggs
vary from two to five in number.

One of the best-known species is —

The Spotted Bush Shrike {Thamnophilas ikkvius),
sometimes called Battara, from the name applied to them
in then' native country. The Spotted Battara mhabits
Cayenne and Brazil, dwelling among the bushes, usually
in jvaire, and exhibits much familiarity, often approaching
the dwellings of men. The food of this, and other species,
consists of insects and their larvae, which they generally
capture among the branches : they rarely descend to the
ground.

The typical form is —

The Many-coloured Bush Shrike (Laniarius multi-
color).

103

T E I B E I Y.

CONIROSTRES.

This numerous division comprehends many well-
known families, distinguished by their short, thick,
conical bill, which is stronger and stouter in pro-
portion as they feed more exclusively on seeds.*
They are most numerous in temperate and cold
climates, of which they are generally permanent
inhabitants.

The bill of the conirostral birds varies a good
deal in length and thickness, and is sometimes more
or less curved. The tip of the upper mandible is
generally straight, and its margin unarmed ; never-
theless, in some of the forms most nearly allied to
the preceding section, the edges of the upper man-
dible are notched near the extremity, and the tip
itself is slightly hooked. The food of the majority
of the species belonging to this group, especially
those with straight and stout conical bills, consists
principally of seeds, for breaking which this form of
beak is peculiarly adapted. There are, however, few,
if any of them, which do not live partially on animal
food, such as insects and their larvse, whilst some
appear to devour almost anything fitted to afford
them nourishment.

* See Animal Creation, p. 428.

194 CONIKOSTRES.

FAMILY I.

CoRViD.E. The Croivs.

Gen. Charac. — Bill strong, with the Ijase of the culmen covered with pro-
jecting bristling plumes, arched, and the sides compressed to the tip, which
is more or less emarginated ; the nostrils basal, and more or less concealed
by the basal plumes ; the wings generally long and pointed; the tail mode-
rate or lengthened ; the tarsi and toes moderate.

Tliis family includes the numerous species of
Crows and other allied forms. They have a more
or less elongated, strong, and compressed conical
bill, in which the ridge of the upper mandible is
curved, and its tip slightly notched on each side.
The nostrils are placed at the base of the upper
mandible, and concealed beneath a group of small
feathers that grow there. The wings are generally
long and powerful, and the feet of moderate length
and size. These birds seem almost equally adapted
to a terrestrial and an aerial existence ; they walk
and run upon the ground with equal facility, rise
easily from the earth, fly well, and display consider-
able activity among the branches of trees. They
are very generally distributed over the face of the
globe, and everywhere readily find the means of
living ; for most of them are by no means particular
about their diet; some even attacking and de-
vouring small birds, and such weakly animals as
they can conveniently overcome. They are, for the
most part, very noisy, with much slyness and
drollery in their disposition, and many of them,
especially when tame, exhibit a strong inclination
for thievery and mischief.

The birds composing this sub-family bear so
strong a resemblance to each other, that the most
unpractised observer can scarcely fail to recognize
them. They manifest a corresponding similarity of
instinct, being shy, easily alarmed, vigilant, and
cunning. Omnivorous in the fullest sense, they

corvid.t:. 195

devour fleshy fisli^ mollusca, grubs, insects, gTaius,
seeds, and other animal and vegetable substances.
Wlien searching for food, they betake themselves to
open places, walk in a sedate manner, keep a good
look-out, and on the slightest appearance of danger
fly off to a distance. Their flight is steady, mode-
rately rapid, and performed by regular beats. Their
cry varies from a hoarse croak to a caw or chatter,
and none of them, with the exception perhaps of
the Piping Crows, can be called musical. They
nestle in high places, trees, towers, buildings of
various kinds, or rocks, and produce from three to
nine eggs, which are deposited very early in the
season. They repose at night in similar retreats, and
when alarmed by day generally betake themselves
to heights. Some species are gregarious, others are
unsocial, the latter being the most carnivorous.
They are all easily tamed, and may be taught to
imitate the human voice, so as to produce a few
articulate sounds.

To this family belong the Piping Crows, the
Jays, the Tree Crows, the Crows, the Fruit Crows,
and the Choug'hs.

11)6

CONIbJOSTRES.

SUB-FAMILY I.
Phonegamin.e.* lite Pijnng Crows.

Gen. Chakac. — Bill lengthened, with the base broad, the sides compressed,
and the culmen broad, rounded, projecting on the forehead, and more or
less straight to the tip, -which is more or less emarginatcd ; the nostrils
basal, much exposed, and usually in the form of a long, narrow slit in
the substance of the bill ; the wings usually long and pointed or rounded ;
the tail long and even or rounded ; the tarsi and the toes strong and strongly
scaled, with the outer toe united at its base.

Fig. 80.— the white-backed gymnokhina.
( Gymnorhina leuconotus.)

The Piping Crows are inhabitants of the primeval
forests of New Guinea and of New South Wales,
where they may be seen perched on the upper

* (pu)}')), phone, voice ; ya'juog, gamos, marriage ; So called because
they are especially noisy during the breeding season.

COR VICE. 197

branclies of the large trees, tlie fruits of whicli
form their principal subsistence. One species is
said to make the whole forest vibrate with its various
musical notes, which are clear, distinct, sonorous,
and pass nearly through the whole gamut. Some
species are found only in Australia, where they fre-
quent cultivated places, and even approach the
dwellings and stock-yards of the colonists ; but they
prefer cleared lands, and open flats and plains
skirted by belts of trees. These feed chiefly on
insects, for which they search the ground ; and they
devour immense numbers of locusts and grasshop-
pers. Their nests are formed outwardly of sticks,
leaves, wool, &c., and lined with fine materials. The
eggs are usually three or four in number.

An example of this race of birds is —

The Piping Crow [Phonegama viridis), common in
New South Wales, mliabiting the Blue Mountains in
small flocks, and buildmg in trees a nest composed of
sticks lined with grass. It is said to make a loud
whistling noise while perched on some lofty branch early
in the morning, and not to be migratory. In capti^dty
it is very amusmg from its powers of mimicry : it imitates
the voices of men and animals, and easily learns to
whistle tunes ; its notes bemg clear and powerful.

The tyi^ical form of the sub-family is —

The White-backed Gymnorhina {Gynmorhina leuco-
notits).

198

CONIROSTRES.

SUB-FAMILY J I.

Garrulin.e.

21te Jays.

Gen. Charac— Bill moderate, strong, laterally compressed, and the culmen
straight, but suddenly curved near the tip, which is emarginated ; the nos-
trils generally concealed by projecting plumes; the wings moderate and
rounded; the tail of various lengths, graduated or rounded; the tarsi
moderate and much seutellated ; and the toes long and strongly scaled.

Fig. 81. — the jay.
( Garrulus glandarius.)

The Jays are peculiar to the Old World, and are
usually found in pairs or small societies in forests,
or wherever trees are growing together, preferring
the thickest and closest parts, as they are very ar-
boreal in their habits, and hop actively from branch
to branch. It is on the trees that these birds find
most of their food, which consists of various fruits
and seeds ; but they also visit cultivated grounds
and orchards for the fruits and certain vegetables
to which they are partial. They sometimes suck the

CORVID-E. 199

eggs of birds in their nests, and even young birds
do not escape them, especially those that are feeble
and sickly ; in preying upon these they place them
under their feet, and with their bills tear them to
pieces, swallowing each piece separately. The vocal
imitations of quadrupeds, as well as birds, which are
practised by the common species, are most exact
and ludicrous. Their nest is composed of sticks,
and lined with fibrous roots of plants : it is usually
placed in the most unfrequented parts of the forest.
The eggs are generally from five to six in number.

The type of this sub -family is —

The Common Jay (Garrulus glandarius) ; a hand-
some bird, well known in England and the south part of
Scotland. It is abundant in the forests of Europe. The
Jay inhabits thick woods ; its food consists partly of
msects and worms, and partly of vegetable matters,
es})ecially beech-nuts and acorns : its predilection for the
last is alluded to in its sjjecific name — Glans, an acorn.

200

CONIROSTRES.

SUB-FAMILY I IT.
Calleatin/E.""' TJie Tree Crows.

Gen. Chaeac. — Bill short, with the culmen elevated at the base and much
curved to the tip, the sides compressed, and the gonys long and straight ;
the wings short and rounded ; the tail lengthened and graduated ; the tarsi
more or less long, and covered in front with broad scales ; the toes moderate,
and the lateral ones unequal.

Fig. 82 — THE FUOXTED DENDEOCITTA.

{Deiidrocitta ffontalis.)

The Tree Crows are found in botli tlie islands of
New Zealand, where they may be seen walking upon
the ground, searching for the larv^ and grubs of
insects. Occasionally they frequent trees of various

* KdXXof, callos, beauty ; So called from the symmetry of their
shape.

COKYID.?^:. 201

kiiids^ for the purpose of plucking their fruits and
berries : they are also said to devour young birds.
Some species inhabit the Australian continent, where
they live in small companies of three or four toge-
ther, on the topmost branches of the trees. They are
extremely quick and restless, the whole company
leaping from branch to branch in rapid succession,
at the same time throwing up and expanding their
tails and wings, actions which are generally accom-
panied by a harsh and unpleasant cry. Others
inhabit the jungles of India, where their peculiar
metallic or harsh rattling notes betray their pre-
sence, even among the thickest foliage.

The best-known species —

The Cinereous Wattle-bird [Callceas cinerea), is an
inhabitant of India ; it measures fourteen or fifteen
inches from the beak to the extremity of the tail, and
is remarkable for the possession of two fleshy, wattle-like
appendages, dependent on each side from the base of the
lower mandible. These wattles are of a blue colour at
their base, but elsewhere of a bright orange-yellow,
giving the buxl a very singular appearance. The Wattie-
bh'd sometimes perches on trees, but is more frequently
seen upon the ground, where it seeks its food, which con-
sists of insects, worms, and berries. It is accused of
killmg young birds. Its voice is a sort of whistle, some-
times accompanied by a low murmuring sound, and is
rather of an agreeable character.

The typical form is —

The Fronted Dsndrocitta (Dendrocitta frontalis).

202

CONIKOSTRES.

Corvine.

SCB-FAMILY IV.

The Crows proper

Gen. Charac. — Bill of various lengths, the base broad and the sides com-
pressed, with the culmen more or less curved to the tip, which is usually
entire ; the nostrils entirely concealed by the projecting frontal plumes,
except when the head or cheeks are denuded of feathers ; the wings long and
slightly rounded ; the tarsi long, Icrigthi'iied, and covered in front with broad
scales; the toes moderate, strong, ami llu- lateral ones of (-qiuil Iciiirth.

h'lG. 83. — THE EAVEN.

(Corcus Corax.)

Tlie birds belonging to this sub-family are found
m most parts of the globe. Some remain stationary
within a certain district^ while others migrate from

CORVID.E.

203

place to place on tlie change of season. They are
generally observed in flocks in cultivated grounds,
seeking carrion, or worms, grubs, caterpillars, small
animals, and the eggs and young of birds, which
they destroy in great numbers. Some species are
more commonly noticed at the sea-side searching
for dead fishes, which the waves continually cast up.
In such places they also find shell-fish, which they
carry high into the air and drop on the rocks, in
order to break the shells. Their cries are hoarse
and discordant, especially during their first flight in

Tig. 84. — the rook
(Corvus frugilecjus.)

the morning, before they scatter themselves into
smaller flocks in search of their food, and again
on their re-assembling in the evening, and while
selecting their separate roosting-places. The nest
is generally built on the topmost branches of lofty

204 CONIROSTKES.

trees ; it is composed outwardly of sticks^ moss, and
small pieces of bark cemented togetlier with moist
eartli, and tlie interior is usually lined with horse-
hair and some wool, whereon the female deposits
four eggs.

Of all birds, some members of the Crow family are
the most social ; for although numerous others live
in companionship the greatest part of the year, yet
when the period of incubation arrives, they generally
separate and disperse. With the Rooks, however,
the social principle is perfect, and they accordingly
form aerial villages, fabricated on the summits of
the loftiest trees, and rear their young in a perpetual
scene of bustle and excitement. Their attachment
to these spots is very remarkable, and has frequently
given rise to obstinate battles between the last pos-
sessors and a stranger flock that has attempted to
usurp the domain.

The t}^e of the race — •

The Raven {Corvus Coi'ax), is the largest and most
powerful of all the Corvidpe, the adult male measuring
about twenty inches in length. It has a long and strong
bill of a black coloui- ; the feathers springing from the base
of the upper mandible and covering the nostrils are about
an inch and a half long. This bird is found in all parts
of the Northern hemisphere, extending its range even
into the frozen regions of the Arctic zone. It is usually
an inhabitant of the wildest and most secluded districts,
haunting the rocks of the sea-coast or the sides of moun-
tains or forests, near extensive plains ; and from its
vigilance and sagacity, its destruction is by no means easy.

CORVID.^].

205

SUB-FAMILY V.

Gyjinoderin.e.*

The Fruit-Crows.

Gen. Charac. — Bill strong, rather depressed and straight, with the culmen
curved and the sides compressed to the tip, which is emarginated ; the nos-
trils lateral, and placed in a membranous groove; the wings long and rather
pointed ; the tarsi more or less long, and covered in front with transverse
scales; the toes rather long, with the outer toe nearly as long as the middle
toe ; the claws long, curved, and acute.

Fig. 85. — the oronoco feuit-ceow.
{Coracdna Orenocensis.)

The members of this group are found in Cayenne,
Louisiana, and Guiana, where they inhabit forests,
and at times visit the plantations for the purpose of

* yu/ii'of, gymnoSj naked ; Cepog, deros,
bare.

:in ; Having the neck

206

CONIROSTRES.

procuring food^ wliicli consists of various fruits and
berries. Other species are inhabitants of the north-
ern parts of South America, where they may be seen
in the forests leaping from branch to branch. They
wander from place to place in search of their food,
and are restless and mischievous ; but if observed,
they conceal themselves among the foliage. Their
nests are said to be constructed at the tops of high
trees that border the great rivers.

The type of this sub-family is —

The Oronoco Fruit-Crow (Coracina Orenocensis).

CORVID.E.

207

SUB-FAMILY VI.
Pyrrhocoracin.e.'"* The Choughs.

Gen. Charac— Bill more or less long, slender, and slightly curved, with the
culmen rounded and curved to the tip, which is rather acute and slightly
emarginated ;• the nostrils broad, lateral, and hidden by the projecting
feathers ; the wings lengthened and pointed ; the tail long and rounded, or
even ; the tarsi strong and rather short ; the toes moderate, with the lateral
ones nearly equal.

Fig. 86. — the chough.
{Fregilus graculiig.)

The Chouglis are not a numerous race; in this
country we have but a single species, and that con-
fined to particular mountainous districts. On the
continent, birds belonging to this sub -family are
met mth in the Swiss Alps and the Tyrol, frequent-
ing the loftier regions, where they breed. With us,

* TTvppog, pyrros, red ; Kopa^, corax, a crow ; Having the feet and
beak of a bright red colour.

L 2

208 CONIROSTEES.

tlie Chough is seldom seen far inland, breeding on
the sea-cliifs, or in old castles and the church towers
near the shore. The nest is formed of sticks, and
lined with a great quantity of wool and hair. The
eggs are of a bluish-white colour, speckled with yel-
lowish-brown. These birds are of lively gait, and of
a restless and crafty disposition, like many of the
Crow genus. Their attention is particularly caught
by glittering objects. Their natural food princi-
pally consists of insects, even the smallest of w4iich
they can reach, with their sharp bill, in the crevices
of rocks and the joints of walls.

The type of this race of birds is —
The Cornish Chough {Fregilus graculus).

PARADISEID.E.

209

Paradiseid^.

FAMILY II.

The Birds of Paradise.

GrEN. Charac. — Bill long, strong, with the culnien curved and the sides com-
pressed to the tip, which is emarginated ; the base of the upper mandible
concealed by short feathers, whip h also cover the nostrils ; the wings long
and rounded ; the tail of various lengths, even or rounded ; the tarsi robust,
long, and covered by a single membrane j the hind toe very long and robust ;
the claws long, strong, and curved.

Fig. 87. — birds op paradise.
(Paradisea apoda and P. superba.)

The most remarkable character of this family
consists in the great development, in the males, of
some portions of their plumage, usually of the fea-
thers of the sides of the body and neck, which often

210 CONIROSTRES.

present the most siiio-ular forms, and give their pos-
sessors a very peculiar appearance. In most cases
they are adorned witli brilliant colours. The Birds
of Paradise are confined to a very limited portion
of the earth^s surface, namely, New Guinea and
the neighbouring islands. Amongst the luxuriant
forests of these regions they live together in large
troops, and their appearance when flitting about is
most beautiful. They are polygamous, like the
gallinaceous birds, which they resemble in the
magnificent attire of the male. Their food consists
principally of fruits. They are lively and active in
their movements, and are usually observed upon
high trees, though they descend in the morning and
evening to the lower branches to search for food,
and to hide among the foliage from the extreme
heat of the sun. The fruits of the teak and fig-tree
form the principal part of their subsistence, and
they occasionally feed on insects, of which, if large,
they reject the legs, wings, and hard parts. Their
cry is loud, sonorous, and poured forth in a rapid
succession of notes. " The first four notes,^^ says
Mr. Lay, ^' are very long, exactly intonated, very
clear, and very sweet. The last three are repeated
in a kind of caw, a very high refinement of the voice
of a daw or a crow, yet possessing a striking resem-
blance.^^

There is but one sub-family, of which the type
is —

The Emerald Bird of Paradise {Faradisea ajpoda) ; so
called from the notion foi-merly universally prevalent in
Europe, that the bird was naturally destitute of feet, and
consequently, that it floated constantly in the air, only at
times suspending itself for a few brief moments, from
some lofty sun-fllumined tree, by the peculiar lengthened
feathers with which it is adorned. In accordance with
this belief, it was thought that whatever individuals were
obtained on earth, had fallen from their aerial heights
immediately before their death.

The true residence and breeding-place of these beautiful

PARADISEID.E. 211

creatures seems to be Papua, or New Guinea, from whence
they make occasional excursions to the neighbouring
islands. They fly in flocks of about thirty or forty, under
the guidance of a single bird, which the natives call their
chief. They appear habitually to prefer the most dense
and secluded parts of the forests, where, when the sky is
clear, they perch ujion the tops of the highest trees. They
fly with rapidity, but with an undulating motion, as is
usual wdth birds adorned with long plumage, and always
against the wind, a position which keeps their long
plumes laid flat to their body ; for it is evident that, did
they fly m any other du-ection, the wind, by blowing their
j^lumage about, would materially interfere with the free
play of their wings. When flying, they make a noise
like Starlings, but their common cry rather resembles that
of a Haven, and is very audible in windy weather, when
they dread the chance of being blown to the gi-ound. In
the Aru islands they are captured by the natives in
various ways, — with birdlune, snails, and blunted arrows.
Though many are taken alive, they are always immedi-
ately killed, embowelled, and their feet cut off : the
plumed skins, fumigated with sulphur, are then dried for
sale. They are said to feed on fruits and berries, and
Linnaeus says they devour the larger butterflies.

212 CONIROSTRES.

FAMILY III.

Sturnid.e. The Starlimjs.

Gen. Charac. — Bill more or less long, with the sides compressed, the eulmen
slightly curved or straight to the tip, which is sometimes emarginated, and
the gape often angulated ; the wings long and pointed; the tail generally
long and even, or graduated ; the tarsi more or less long, and covered in
front with broad scales ; the toes long and strong, the hind toe verj' long
and robust; the claws long, curved, and acute.

The birds of this family are nearly related to the
Corvidse^ both in their structure and habits. They
are for the most part sociable^ collecting in flocks,
especially during the autumn and winter, and even
during the breeding season they are generally to be
seen in company. Their food consists of worms, in-
sects, fruit, and grain, — articles which also constitute
a considerable portion of the diet of Crows ; but the
Starlings do not appear to imitate the latter birds
either in their taste for carrion or in their predatory
propensities ; they are, however, very sagacious,
and become docile and amusing in captivity, when
some of them may be taught various tricks, and even
to speak a few words.

To this family belong the Glossy Starlings, the
(xrakles, the Beef-eaters, the Starlings proper, the
Boat-tails^ the Hang-nests, and the Troop-birds.

STURNID.E.

18

SUB-FAj\JILY I.
Ptilorhyxchix.e.* The Glossy Starlings.

Gen. Chaeac— Bill strong, moderate, •with the sides compressed, and the
culmen curved to the tip, which is emarginated ; the wings moderate and
pointed ; the tail of various length, and graduated or even ; the tarsi strong
and covered with broad scales ; the toes long, strong, the lateral ones
unequal, and hind toe long and strong.

t^'j%^-

Fig. 8S. — the satin bower-biud.
(PtiJorhifnchus holosericus.)

These remarkable birds^ called by Mr. Gould the
Bower-birds, are peculiar to Australia, where they
are fouud in the forests that border the principal
rivers, as well as in the cedar bushes. When perched
on the lofty branches of the trees, they emit loud and
harsh notes, which, w4th regard to one of the species,
can only be compared to the noises of the domestic

* TTTiKov, T^iilon, a feather ; puyxog. vjnchos, a hcaT:.
L 3

214

CONIROSTRES.

cat. In the autumn they congregate in small flocks,
and are then often seen on the ground. The adult
males of the Satin Bower-birds are more rarely seen
than the females and old males, and these latter are
supposed to be from two to three years old before
they exhibit their rich glossy black plumage. They
feed on various berries and fruits, especially wild
figs and the native cherry, which, when ripe, forms
their chief food. They are very destructive to the
ripening crops of the settlers.

The typical species is named —

The Satin Bower-bird {Ptilorhynchus holosericus). The
localities favourable to the habits of the Satin-bird are
the luxuriant and thick ly-foliaged brushes stretching
along the coast of the Australian continent, from Port
Phillip to Moreton Bay. It is not migratory, but ranges
from one district to another, either for the purpose of
varying the nature of its food or of obtaining a more,
abundant supply. It appears to be wholly granivorous
or frugivorous, or, if not exclusively so, insects form but
a small portion of its diet. Independently of numerous
berry-bearing plants and shrubs, the brushes it inhabits
are studded with enormous fig-trees, some of them
towering to the height of two hundred feet. Among the
lofty branches of these giants of the forest, the Satin
Bower-bird and several species of Pigeons find, in the
small white fig with which the branches are loaded, an
almndaiit supply of a favourite food ; they also commit
considerable depredations on ripening corn. These birds
have the remarkable habit of forming a bower-like struc-
ture, which seems to serve them as a playing-ground or
hall of assembly. Their bowers are usually placed under
the shelter of the branches of some overhanging tree, in
the most retired part of the forest. The base consists of
an extensive and rather convex platform of sticks, firmly
interwoven, on the centre of which the bower itself is
built. This, like the platform on which it is placed, and
with which it is interwoven, is formed of sticks and twigs,
but of a more slender and flexible description, the tips of
the twigs being so arranged as to curve inwards, and
nearly meet at the top. In the interior of the bower the

STUKNID.E. 215

materials are so placed that the forks of tlie twig.s are
always presented outwards ; by which arrangement not
the slightest obstruction is afforded to the i:>assage of the
birds. The interest of this curious bower is much
enhanced by the manner in which it is decorated, both at
and near the entrance, with the most gaily-coloured
articles that can be collected ; as the blue tail-feathers of
the Rose-hill and Pennantian Parrots, bleached bones,
the shells of snails, &c. Some of the feathers are stuck
in aaiong the twigs, while the bones and shells are
strewed about near the entrances. The propensity of
these birds to pick up and ily off with any attractive
object i.s so well known to the natives, that they always
search tlieii- bowers for any small missing article, such as
the bowl of a pipe, &c., that may have been dropped acci-
dentally in the brush. Mr. Gould found, at the entrance
of one of tliern, a small neatly-worked stone tomahawk,
of an inch and a half in length, together with some slips
of blue cotton rags, wdiich the birds had doubtless picked
up at a deserted encampment of the natives. For what
purpose these curious bowers ai'e made is not yet fully
understood ; they are certainly not used for a nest, but as
a place of resort for many individuals of both sexes,
which, when there assembled, run through and around
the bower in a sportive and playful manner, and that so
frequently, that it is seldom entirely deserted.

" Another species, the Chlamydera maculata^^ nearly
allied to the Satin Bower-bird, constructs a bovver even
more extraordinary than that just described, and in
which the decorative propensity is carried to a far greater
extent. The bowers of this bird are considerably larger,
and more avenue-like than those of the Satin Bower-bird,
being in many instances as much as three feet in length.
They are built of twigs, and beautifully lined with tall
grasses, so disposed that their heads nearly meet ; the
decorations, moreover, are very profuse, and consist of
bivalve shells, crania of small mammals, and other bones.
Evident and beautiful indications of design are manifest
throughout the whole of this strange edifice and its deco-
rations, particularly in the manner in which the stones
are placed within the enclosure, apparently to keep the

* yXfijxvQ, chlamys, a mantle; Sepog, deros, the skin; So called
because they have a rose-coloured band at the back of the neck.

216

CONIROSTEES.

grasses witJi which it is lined fixed firmly in their places :
tliese stones diverge from the mouth of the run on each
side, so as to form little paths, while the immense col-
lection of decorative materials, l)ones, shells, &c., are
placed in a lieaj) before the entrance of the avenue ; this
arrangement being the same at both ends. In some of
the larger bowers, which had evidently been resorted t(»
for many years, nearly half a bushel of bones, shells, and
similar objects had accumulated at each of tlie entrances.

Fig. 89. — the spotted bower-bird.
{Chlamydera maculata.)

These structures are frequently found at a considerable
distance from rivers, from the borders of which alone
the birds could have procured the shells and small i-ound
pebbly stones employed in their decoration. The col-
lection and transportation of these must therefore be a
task of great labour and difficulty ; and as these birds feed
almost entirely upon seeds and fruits, the shells and bones
cannot have been collected for any other purjjose than
ornament ; besides, it is only those that have been bleached
in the sun, or such as have been roasted by the natives,
and by this means whitened, that are made use of

sturnidj:.

217

SUB- FAMILY II.

Graculin^.

The Grakles.

Gen. Charac. — Bill more or less long, broad at the base, much compressed
on the sides, -with the culmen rather curved to the tip, which is slightly
emarginated ; the nostrils basal, lateral, rounded, exposed, with the frontal
plumes advancing to or covering the opening ; the wings long, -with the first
quill short, and the third and fourth ^he longest ; the tail short, and even
or slightly graduated ; the tarsi short ; the toes long and strongly scutel-
lated.

Fig. 90.— the crowned grakle.
{Gracula coronata.)

The true Grakles inhabit the lofty jungles of
India. They are generally seen in pairs, or small
parties of five or six individuals, frequenting the
tops of the highest trees, seeking fruits, chiefly ber-
ries of various kinds. They are sometimes found in
newly-made gardens where a few large trees are left
standing, flying cheerfully from tree to tree, resting

218 CONIROSTRES.

a few minutes and whistling, and then flying off
again. Their song is rich, varied, and pleasing ; they
have, however, several harsh notes, often heard in
the jungles.

The Mina-hird {Gracula religiosa) is a native of India
and the Indian islands, where it is highly valued for its
powers of imitation ; indeed, it easily learns to repeat,
not only words, but whole phrases, and that with sur-
prising distinctness. Marsden says that it has the faculty
of imitating human speech more perfectly than any other
bird. In captivity, the Mina is lively, confident, and
docile ; it is about the size of a Thrush, and lives indis-
criminately on insects and fruits. The Jungle Mina is
often seen in cages in the South of India, where it is very
highly prized, both for its powers of song and speech.

Another species, called —

The Paradise Grakle {Gracula tristis), also a native of
India and the Phihppine islands, is very voracious, and
particularly fond of locusts and grasshoppers. In con-
nection with these birds, BufFon relates the following in-
structive anecdote. "The Isle of Bourbou, where they
were unknown, was overrun with locusts, which had been
unfortunately introduced from Madagascar, their eggs
having been imported in the soil brought with some plants
from that island. In consequence of this, the governor and
the intendant deliberated anxiously on the means of ex-
terminating these noxious insects, and for that purjiose
caused several pairs of G-rakles to be introduced into the
island. The plan promised to succeed, but unfortunately
some of the colonists observing the birds eagerly thrusting
their bills mto the earth of the new-sown fields, imagined
that they were in quest of the grain, and reported that
instead of proving beneficial, the Grakles would, on the
contrary, be highly detrunental to the country. The case
was considered in form. On the part of the birds it was
argued that they raked in the newly-plouglied fields, not
for the sake of the grain, but of the insects, and were
therefore worthy of protection. They were, however,
proscribed by the council, and in the space of a few hours
after the sentence was pronounced, not a Grakle was to
be found in the island. This prompt execution was.

STURNID.E.

219

however, followed by speedy repentance ; the locusts
gained the ascendancy, and the people, who only viewed
the present, regretted the loss of the Grakles. In a few
years afterwards a few pairs were again introduced, their
preservation and breeding were made a state affair, the
laws held out protection to them, and the physicians on
their part declared theii' flesh to be unwholesome. The
Grakles accordingly multiplied, and the locusts were
destroyed."

The type of this sub-family is —

The Crowned Grakle {Gracula coronata).

220

CONIROSTRES.

SUB-FAMILY II J.

BUPHAGIN.E."'

The Ox-peckers.

Gen. Charac. — Bill moderate, broad, with the culmen slightlj' depressed
and curved to the tip, which is entire ; the lateral sides of the lower man-
dible broad, and the goms short and ascending ; the nostrils basal, small,
and partly closed by a membrane; the wings long and pointed ; the tail
long and graduated, with the end of each feather pointed ; the tarsi short
and strong ; the toes moderate, strong, and armed with moderate, niucli
compressed, c;irved, and acute claws.

Fig. 91. — thk ox pecker.
(Buphdga AJ'ricuna.)

Tlie Ox-peckers are found on tlie continent of
Africa. Tliey are always in company with cattle^
on whose backs they are generally seen clinging

* f^oi'Q, bous, an ox ; (payto, phago, to eat ; Beef-eater.

STURNIU.E. 221

while seeking for the parasitical insects that annoy
those animals.

The type of the race —

The Ox-pecker, or African Beef-eater {Buphaga Afri-
cana), is a common bird in many parts of Africa, where
it follows the singular mode of life that has obtained for
it its name. Perching upon the backs of oxen, or other
cattle, it sets to work busily to extract from their skins
the larvse of the CEstridce, or Bot-flies, with which they
are almost constantly infested, and which often give rise
to painful tumours. It creeps about in all directions
upon the body of the ox by means of its powerful feet,
which exhibit some resemblance to those of the Wood-
})ecker, although the toes are in the ordinary position.
The bill of the bird is well adapted for digging and
squeezing out these larvae ; it is short and stout, and
inflated towards its extremity. The cattle are said to
submit with exemplary patience to the operation, as if
aware of the l^enefit to be derived from it. The Ox-pecker
measures between eight and nine inches in length ; it lives
in small bands, consisting of seven or eight individuals,
and is very shy.

Besides the larvae of the Breeze-fly, for which they show
a decided preference, these birds eat all kinds, of insects,
bird-lice, and similar creatures.

222

CONIKOSTRES.

Sturnin.^.

SUB-FAMILY IV.

lite Starlings j^roper.

Gen. Charac. — Bill more or less long, witli the culmen curved or straight to
the tip, which is obtuse and somewhat flattened ; the nostrils basal, placed
in a membranous groove, and sometimes clothed with short feathers ; the
wings moderate ; the tail rather short, and even or rounded ; the tarsi
rather long, strong, and covered with broad scales ; the toes long and strong,
armed with strong acute claws.

Fig. 92.— the commox starling.

(Stiinms vulgaris.)

These birds are found in most parts of the world,
migrating regularly in vast flocks, which occasions
them to appear in difl'erent localities at stated
periods. They mostly frequent swampy places, and
are often seen in company with other birds of similar
habits. While on the ground they walk with
facility. Their food consists chiefly of worms and
insects ; but they also feed upon grain and seeds,

STURNID^. 22o

which are usually obtained by searching for them
on the ground. Their notes consist of a shrill
whistle, occasionally varied by a chattering noise ;
and they often imitate the cries of birds and animals.
They make their nests of dry grass, in the holes of
trees and buildings, and lay from four to five eggs.

The type of this sub -family is —

The Common Starling [Sturnus vulgaris). This well-
known bird appears to be generally distributed over the
whole of the Eastern hemisphere. In the autumn, the
Starlings collect m large flocks, consisting of old and
young birds, which fly together in search of food, and
roost together at night. Sometimes many of these flocks
select some mass of trees as a common roosting-place, to
which they come uight after night in thousands. Their
food consists of worms, insects, slugs, and snails, together
with berries and seeds, the latter especially during the
autumn and winter. In pursuit of insects and worms,
they may be constantly seen in parties upon meadows and
lawns, sometimes in company with Rooks and other birds :
when thus engaged, they do not hop, but run, movmg
their feet alternately.

They alight in open pastures abruptly, without prepa-
ratory reconnoitring, and immediately disperse, running
nimbly along in search of mollusca, worms, and other
objects. On discovering traces of a subterranean larva
or worm, they dig for it, with great dexterity, m the
same manner as the Thrushes and the Crows. During
their search they are seldom silent, some individuals
commonly keeping up a chattering noise, and occasion-
ally uttermg a low scream ; this scream prolonged and
heightened is the intimation of alarm, and when heard
from one or more of the flock, they immediately cease
their search, look up, and if they judge it necessary, fly
oW with s}>eed to a considerable distance.

224

CONIROSTRES.

SUB-FAMILY V.

QUISCALIN^.

The Boat-tails.

Gen. Chaeac. — Bill lengthened, with the culmen straight and slightly curved
at the tip ; the nostrils basal, lateral, and placed in a triangular groove ;
wings moderate and pointed ; tail lengthened and graduated, with the sides
generally curved upwards ; the tarsi and toes strong and much scutellated,
the hind toe long, and armed with a strong curved claw.

Fig. 93.— the black boat-tail.

{Scaphidurus ater.) ,

These birds are migratory between tlie north and
the more temperate parts of the American continent,
according to the change of seasons. In the winter
they assemble in considerable numbers, and entirely
overrun the warmer south-eastern maritime regions,
and are very destructive. In the spring they are
usually seen flying about the swam^os and meadows,
or following in the furrows after the plough. At this
season they are very useful to the husbandman, as

STURNiD.?;:. 225

tliey destroy a prodigious number of worms, grubs,
and caterpillars ; on tlie other hand, they commit
great depredations on the maize or Indian corn as
soon as it appears above the ground, feeding on the
sweet and sprouting stem, and scattering the leaves
around as an evidence of their mischievous mode of
life. This plant is again attacked when the grain is
in the milky state to such an extent that one -fourth
of the crop is supposed to be devoured by these
hungry marauders. Previously to their departure
to the Southern States, they collect from all parts
in such hosts that the air is darkened by their
numbers.

The best-known species —

The Purple duiscalus (Quiscalus purpureus), generally
called the Purple Grakle, is an annual visitor to the
United States of North America. These birds frequent
marshy districts, but in the month of March approach
rural habitations, and pick up food in the farm-yards, or
even at the doors of houses, where they will share the
gram thrown out to the fowls. The woods, and more
especially those of a marshy character, are selected as fit
localities for building their nests, which are composed of
the stems of dried grass, sedge, and fibrous roots, and
strengthened externally with a coat of clay. The eggs
are five or six in number, of a bluish colour, spotted, and
streaked with dark brown or black. Two broods are
reared in the course of the year.

The type of this sub-family is —

The Black Boat-tail [Scaphidurus ater).

226

CONIKOSTRES.

SUB-FAMILY VI.

ICTERIN^.

The Ilang-nests.

Gen. Charac. — Bill more or less lengthened, witli both mandibles straight or
slightly curved towards the tips, which are acute and entire ; the wings
lengthened and pointed; the tail long and generally wedge-shaped; the
tarsi as long as, or shorter than, the middle toe, and broadly scaled ; toes
moderate and formed for grasping.

Fig. 94. — the red-eumped cassican.
(Cassicus hcemorrhous.)

These are American birds^ in their manners ap-
proximating to the Starhngs^ livings like them^ in
flocks^ and constructing their nests near each other
with singular skill and artifice, and suspending them
from the horizontal branches of trees. Each nest
is about a yard long, and resembles an enormous
purse, with the lower end hemispherical and ten

* 'iKTtpoQ, icteros ; a bird, mentioned by Pliny, of a yellowish-
green colour.

STURNID.E. 227

inches wide. Tlie male and female jointly manufac-
ture tliis gigantic structure by interlacing or knitting
together shreds of the bark of a species of aloe named
Caraquata , small rushes, and the fibres of a para-
sitical plant called Tallandsia usneoldes, or Old
man's heard. The bottom is lined with a thick layer
of large dry leaves plucked from the tree itself. In
this rocking-cradle the female lays three eggs, and
feeds her young with worms till they have attained
maturity, when they prefer to live on oranges and
pine-apples.

The best-known members of the group are —

The Cassicans* {Cassicus), so called from the inge-
nuity with which they construct their pensile nests,
crowding them together in such numbers as to form
quite a feature in the landscape. Upon one tree,
standing in the middle of a lake, and not more than
ten feet high, forty-five of these nests have been
counted, some depending one from another, and
completely concealing all the upper branches except
a few of the outermost leaves : at a distance, the
whole resembled an immense basket. Often in such
situations large trees are seen with hundreds of these
nests hanging from their boughs, and swaying in
the wind. " The Cassican,^^ says Mr. Waterton,
" in size is larger than a Starling, and courts the
society of man, but disdains to Uve by his labours.
When hungry, he repairs to a neighbouring forest,
and there partakes of fruit and seeds ; when his
repast is over, he returns to man, and pays the little
tribute that he owes him for protection ; he takes
his station on a tree close to his house, and there,
for hours together, pours forth a succession of imi-
tative notes. His own song is sweet, but very short.
If a Toucan be yelping in the neighbourhood, he
drops his own notes and imitates him. Then he will
amuse his protector with the cries of the different

* Kaaaino, cassuo, to sew together ; So called because they form
their nests of interwoven vegetable fibres.

228 CONIROSTRES.

species of Woodpecker ; and when tlie sheep bleat,
he will distinctly answer them. Then conies his
own song again ; and if a puppy-dog or a guinea-
fowl interrupt him, he takes them off admirably,
and by his different gestures while doing so, you
would think that he enjoys the sport ; indeed, he
imitates any sound so exactly, that he goes by no
other name than that of the Mocking-bird among
the colonists. At breeding-time, a number of these
pretty choristers resort to a tree near the planter's
house, and from its outside branches weave their
pendulous nests ; so conscious do they seem that
they never give offence, and so little suspicious are
they of receiving any injury from man, that they
will choose a tree within forty yards of his house,
and occupy the branches so low down that he may
peep into their nests."

The proportions of this bird are so fine that he
may be said to be a model of symmetry in Orni-
thology.

The type of this sub -family is —

The Red-rumped Cassican (Cassicus hcemorrhous).

STURNID.E.

229

Agelaix.e.

SUB-FAMILY VI I.

The Troojy-hirds.

Gen. Chahac. — Bill the length of the head, or shorter, completely conical,
with the sides gradually compressed towards the tip ; the culmen straight,
flattened, and more or less broad; the tarsi usually the length of the middle
toe ; the toes lengthened, slender, the outer united at the base with the
middle one, the hind toe long, and all armed with long and rather curved
claws.

Fig. 95. — the capped troop-bird,
( Chrysomus frontalis.)

These birds are peculiar to tlie continent of Ame-
rica. The North- American species are migratory,
and in winter visit the southern States in large
Hocks, especially frequenting the vicinity of the sea-
coast near large fields of rice and corn. Wilson
relates that he has frequently been amused by their
aerial evolutions. Sometimes they appear driving
about like an enormous black cloud carried before

230 CONIROSTRES.

the wind, and varying its shape every moment ;
sometimes snddenly rising from the fields around
him with a noise like thunder, then descending like
a torrent and covering the branches of some de-
tached grove or clump of trees, the whole congre-
gated multitude commenced a chorus which he could
plainly distinguish at the distance of more than two
miles. They arrive in Pennsylvania in the begin-
ning of March in immense flocks, and commence
their attack on the grubs, caterpillars, and other
larvae ; for these they search in the ground at the
roots of plants, in orchards and meadows, as well as
among buds, leaves, and blossoms ; and from their
known voracity, the multitudes of insects destroyed
by them must be immense. During August and
September they pour down on the low countries
near the coast in prodigious multitudes, wheeling
and driving over the devoted cornfields, and filling
the air with their numbers. Then commences the
work of destruction on the corn, till little is left for
the industrious husbandman, and on the seeds of
the reeds and wild oats, and other plants that abound
on the banks of the great rivers. In April they
separate in pairs to begin their family preparations.
The nest is sometimes placed among the high grass
of a watery meadow, or in a tussock of rushes in a
marsh, but more frequently about six or eight feet
from the, ground in a thicket of alders, or in a
detached bush. The exterior is formed of rushes
and long tough grass twined securely around the
neighbouring twigs, to prevent its falling from its
flexible support : a similar precaution is used when
the nest is made amongst rushes. When placed on
the ground, less care is necessary, and fewer mate-
rials are employed, the nest being much lighter and
more simple : the lining is of fine bent. The female
deposits five eggs.

The Cow-pen Bird, or Cow Bunting (Molothrus* hona-

* j.io\i~iv. molein, to trrmsjAant ; from the habit of depositing
its eo-gs in the nests of other birds.

STURNID.^. 231

riensis), is remarkable for its habit of depositing its eggs
in the nest of some other bird, like our Cuckoo. It is
migratory at certain seasons, making its appearance in
the middle States of the American Union at the end of
March or the beginning of April, but it passes the winter
in the southern States. The name Cow-pen Bird given
to tliis species is due to its habit of frequenting the
inclosures in which cattle are confined, where it seeks for
seeds, worms, and insects. It is never known to build a
nest, but drops its eggs singly in the nests of numerous
species of small birds. Tlie young Cow-bird, like the
young of the European Cuckoo, is always found alone in
the nest of its foster-parents, and probably resorts to the
same means of getting rid of the rightful tenants that
is adopted by the Cuckoo, as it is found that when the
egg of the parasite is deposited before those of the owner,
the latter deserts its nest, and thus the object of the
intruder is defeated. It has been observed that the young
of this bird, like that of the Cuckoo, seems to possess
some power of attaching to itself the affections of almost
all small birds, as these cannot see it in a helpless state
without administering to its necessities. Wilson placed
a young bird of this species in the same cage with a
Okrdinal Grosbeak, and the latter, as soon as his compa-
nion began to be clamorous for food, set to work to satisfy
its appetite, and tended it like an aflectionate nurse ;
when he found that a grasshopper w^hich he brought to
his nurseling was too larg-e for it to swallow, he broke
it into small pieces, which he passed through his bill to
soften them, and then placed in the expectant mouth of
the little Cow-bird wdth the greatest gentleness. The
length of the Cow-pen Bird is about seven inches ; its
plumage is black with a greenish gloss. The female is of
a brown colour, 2)aler below.

The type of this sub-family is —

The Capped Troop-bird (ChrT/somus frontalis).

31 -J.

232 conirostiJes.

FAMILY IV.

FiiiNGiLLiD^. The Finches.

Gejt. Charac. — Bill short, thick, strong, and more or less conical, without
emargiuation at the tip, but generally angular and thick at the base.

In the family of tlie Finches, to which belong the
Sparrow, the Bunting, the Greenfinch, the Gold-
finch, and all our little thick-billed birds, the form
of the bill is more decidedly conical than in any
other Passeres. Their beak is generally short and
stout, but tapering to a fine point ; and the edges of
the u|Dper mandible are destitute of those notches
near the tip, which, although specially characteristic
of the Dentirostral tribes, occur in a less marked
degree in many Conirostral species : in only one
sub -family (the Tanagers), the upper mandible is
distinctly notched, and bent over the lower. Their
tongue is rather fleshy, but horny towards the tip,
where it usually presents a slit. The feet are slender,
the tarsi generally covered in front with seven horny
23lates, which, however, are sometimes conjoined so
as to form a single long shield. The toes are of mode-
rate length, and terminated by rather slender curved
claws. The tail is composed of twelve feathers.

The Finches are all small birds, and exhibit much
activity as they hop along upon the ground, or leap
from twig to twig among the trees and bushes.
Their flight is undulatory, rising as by an effort
through a certain space, and then sinking, as the
wings are closed, for a similar distance. Their food
consists principally of seeds, for the consumption of
which the form of their bill is peculiarly adapted ;
but they also pick up insects and worms, especially
during the breeding season. Their adaptation to a
diet of hard vegetable substances is further shown
l:>y the structure of their digestive organs, their

FHINGILLID^.

oesopliagus being dilated into a small crop, in which
seeds are stored and partially softened; and they
are possessed of a powerful gizzard for the commi-
nution of their food. In some species, the colours
of the plumage are exceedingly rich and beautifully
combined, but the majority are clad in dull and
homely attire. The race of Finches is distributed
throughout all the temperate parts of the world, and
some are even met with in the Arctic regions, since
wherever vegetation exists seeds are produced, and
these, as we have seen, constitute their principal
food.

The birds belonging to this family usually frequent
open and cultivated places, but some prefer ^ald
mountainous districts. They live in flocks, several
species sometimes associating together, especially
during the winter months. Those that reside in the
more northern parts of Europe migrate periodically
to the warmer provinces ; and those that frequent
the mountains seek the lower ground on the a^Dproach
of winter. Their song consists of three or four
notes, which in some, though short, possess great
sweetness, and are varied in delivery. Their nest is
placed upon trees and in the bushes of mountainous
districts, or else in those of gardens, orchards, and
plantations. It is composed of grass, moss, and
lichens interwoven with wool, and lined interiorly
with feathers and h^ir. The eggs are four or five in
number.

This exten'sive family comprehends the Weaver-
birds, the Hawfinches, the Tanagers, the Finches,
the Buntings, the Larks, the Bullfinches, the Cross-
bills, and the Plant-cutters.

2U

CONIROSTRES.

SUB-FAMILY I.

Plocein.^.'"'

The Weavers.

Gen. Chakac. — Bill strong and conical, w-ith the culmen projecting on the
forehead and arched to the tip, which is entire ; the wings somewhat rounded,
with the first quill remarkably short ; the legs and toes robust, and strongly
scaled, and the hind toe strong and nearly as long a3 the middle toe.

Fig, 96. — the Philippine weaver-bird.
(Ploceus Pliillppinus.)

* ttKokij, a tfcb; So called from the skill with which their nests
are woven.

FRINGILLID^. 235

These birds inhabit India and Africa^ where they
are to be seen on trees near the banks of rivers :
they feed on small fruits, rice, and seeds, and do
considerable damage in gardens during the summer.

Several species build curious hanging nests, com-
posed of the stalks of grasses, very neatly and
closely interwoven^ and have thus earned for them-
selves the name of Weaver-hlrds.

The Philippine Weaver-bird {Floceus Fhilijyjnnus) is
described as suspending its nest by a cord of considerable
length from the branch of a tree, so as to be inaccessible
to snakes and monkeys. This elegant structure is said to
contain a chamber for tlie male, and another for the
female, the former being situated close to the opening at
the bottom of the nest, through which the birds obtain
access to their snug apartments. Here the male stations
himself, and the natives believe that he attaches to the
walls of his chamber a patch of soft clay, to which he
fastens a fire-fly to serve as a night-light. Tlie Baya of
India, which, if not identical with, is very nearly allied
to the Philippine species, is better known, and, from the
observations of European residents in India, we obtain
more accurate infoiination of its proceedings. The nest
of this species is usually suspended from the tips of the
leaves of the fan-palm, where it hangs perfectly secure
from all plunderers, or sometimes from the leaves of the
Babul, a species of mimosa, whose formidable thorns
serve to keep all intruders at a distance. It is composed
of dried grass, closely interwoven, and resembles a gradu-
ally enlarging purse of thirteen or fourteen inches in
length, and about seven inches in diameter at the lowest
part, where the true nest is situated. This consists only
of a single chamber, the opening of which is at one side,
access to it bemg obtained by means of a cylindrical
passage hanging down from the bottom of the nest. The
male has a separate, but less perfect nest of his own, and
in this Mr. Layard always found two masses of clay
attached on each side of the perch occupied by the bird.
The Cingalese asserted that these were for the reception
of the fire-flies, which they believe the male bird takes
into his abode on the approach of night; but Mr. Layard
was unable to verify this supposition.

236

CONIROSTRES.

Many other species belonging to this sub-family
are equally remarkable for the beauty and unusual
structure of their nests. Some are gregarious even
during the breeding season, hanging their nests
close together on the same tree ; and as each bird,
on building a new nest, places it in close juxtaposition
with the old ones, an apparently solid mass of nests
is at length collected, consisting of numerous apart-
ments each tenanted by a pair of birds, but having
the external appearance of one single dwelling.

Of these —

The Sociable Grosbeak (Ploceus socius), an inhabitant
of the interior of Africa, near the Cape of Good Hope, is
one of the most remarkable. These birds build their
nests in mimosa trees, which grow to a large size, and

Fig. 97. — nest of the sociable grosbeak.
(Ploceus sociios.)

appear to be peculiarly adapted for the purpose, as the
smoothness of their trunks prevents the occupants from
being attacked by monkeys and other noxious animals.

" On one tree," says Mr. Paterson, " there could not
be less than from eight hundred to a thousand of these
nests, under one general roof I call it a roof because
it resembles that of a thatched house, and projects over

FRJNGILLID.E. 237

tlie entrance of the nest below in a very singular manner.
The industry of these birds seems almost equal to that of
the bee. Throughout the day they a2)pear to be busily
employed in carrying a species of fine grass, which is the
principal material tliey employ for the purpose of erecting
this extraordinary work, as well as for additions and
repaii's. Though my very short stay in the country was
not sufficient to satisfy me by ocular proof that they
added to their nest as they annually increased in numbers,
still, from the many trees that I have seen borne down
by the weight, and others which I have observed with
their boughs completely covered over, this would appear
to Ije really the case. When the tree which is the suj^port
of this aerial city is obliged to give way to the increase of
weight, it is obvious that they are no longer protected,
and are under the necessity of rebuilding in other trees.
One of these deserted nests I had the curiosity to break
down to inform myself of the internal structure, and
found it equally ingenious with that of the external.
There are many entrances, each of which forms a regular
street, with nests on both sides at about two inches' dis-
tance from each other. The grass with which they build
is called the Bushman's grass, and I believe the seed of it
to be their jDrincipal food, though, on examining their
nests, I found the wings and legs of different insects.
From every appearance, the nest which I dissected had
been inhabited for many years, and some parts were more
complete than others. This, therefore, I conceive to be an
additional proof that the animals added to it at different
times, as they found necessary from the increase of the
family, or rather, of the nation or community."

But the most celebrated of these ingenious architects
is the '' Tailor-bird," whose nest is a perfect curiosity.
When about to build a cradle for their progeny, the
Tailor -birds first select a plant ^\dth large leaves, and
then, gathering real cotton from the cotton-plant, spin it
into a thread by means of their bill and feet, and literally
sew the leaves together so as to form a sort of pensile
bag, in which the young are reared. Much obscurity
hangs over the true affinities of this little bird ; it is gene-
rally known by the name of Sylvia sutoria, or Tailor
Warbler. Dr. Latham describes its nest as composed of
a single leaf of a fibrous rough texture, about six inches
M 3

288

CONIROSTRES.

long and live inches and a lialf in breadtli, ending in a
point. The sides of this leaf are drawn together so as
to meet within three-quarters of an inch ; within this
is the nest, which is about four inches deep and two broad,
ojiening at the top ; and the bottom of the leaf is drawn
ui)wards to assist in suj^porting it. This inward nest is
composed of white down, with here and there a feather.
The stalk of the leaf, from which the whole fabric hangs,
is about five inches long. The specimen above described
was brought from China.

Fig. 98.— nest of tailoe-bird.

FRINGILLID^.

239

SUB-FAMILY J I.
CoccoTHRAUSTiN^.* TJiB Hawfincltes.

Gen. Chakac. — Bill large, short, strong, conic, and very broad at the base ;
the culmen and gonys more or less equally curved at the tip ; the lateral
margins more or less angulated at their base ; the wings lengthened and
more or less pointed ; the tail in general short ; the tarsi as long as or shorter
than the middle toe, robust, and strongly sealed, and the hind toe as long as,
or rather shorter than, the inner one, and strong.

V ^-

^-

Fig. 99.— the hawfinch.
( Coccotkruustes vulgaris,)

These birds are found in various parts of Europe,
Nortli America, and the northern parts of India,
where they migrate periodically in search of the
seeds and fruits on which they feed. The great
strength of their bills allows them to break cherry-

* KOKKo9pavaTr]c, coccothraustes, a Icernd-hreaker.

240 CONIROSTRES.

stones and almonds for tlie kernels ; tliey likewise
feed upon liaws and other winter berries.*

Tlie type of this sub-family, —

The Hawfinch {Coccotkraustes vnlgaris), from its
general conformation, is evidently ada].)ted to some labo-
rious occupation. Its short tail and wings unfit it for
long aerial voyages, and its thick neck and ponderous
hill denote great muscular power. Hawfinches may be
seen in winter diligently picking up and cracking the
stones of laurel cherries, from which Blackbirds had, a
few months before, stripped the pulp. They are not un-
common in clierry orchards, where their visits may be
detected by the ground being covered with halves of
cherry-stones, which these birds sjolit with their powerful
beaks, as cleverly as a workman could divide them with
his chisel ; they likewise feed on hazel nuts, the kernels
of the fruit of the hawthorn, seeds of various kinds, and,
when they can get them, green peas.

The nest is built sometimes in a bush, and sometimes
among the branches of a tree : it is composed of twigs,
intermixed with a larger or smaller quantity of fragments
of grey lichen. The latter is never wanting, and some-
times constitutes the greater part of the nest. The mate-
rials are loosely put together, and the cavity is lined with
fine roots and hair ; the eggs are from four to six in
number, of a pale olive colour, spotted with brown and
streaked with grey.

* Hence the Hawfinch is called by the Germans, Kernbeisser,
Kia'sch Kernbeisser, Kerschfink, Nussbeisser, &c.

FRINGILLID.E.

241

SUB-FAMILY III.

Taxagrix.e.

The Tanager

Gen. Chaeac. — Bill more or less triangular at the base, with the culmen more
or less arched to the tip, which is more or less emarginated ; the wings
moderate and somewhat pointed ; the tarsi and toes short and slender, the
hind toe rather lengthened and strong, with the claws strong and curved.

Fig. 100.— the eed-headed pyranga.

(Pi/runga ruhiceps.)

The Tanager s are distiiiguislied from the other
Finches by their bill having a distinct and well-
defined notch near the end of the npper mandible.
They are all natives of the warmer parts of America^
abounding most in those regions which lie nearest
to the equinoctial line. They are in general small
birds, the largest being intermediate in size between
a sparrow and a thrush, while the majority do not
exceed the size of a linnet : some are smaller. It is

242 CONIROSTRES.

quite evident, from tlie great strength of the bill
possessed by some, and by the notch which is con-
spicuous in all, that these birds feed both upon seeds
and insects, picked from the branches of trees ; for
they are rarely seen upon the ground. Their colours
are generally bright, and in many species particularly
rich and beautiful ; some, indeed, are ornamented
with the most vivid hues, or glossed with rich
reflections of gold, rendering them inferior only to
the Humming-birds. A few possess considerable
vocal powers, and the notes of the sub-genus EiipJio-
nia, as its name implies, are particularly musical.
The impossibility of providing Tanagers with their
native insect food has prevented them from ever
being brought alive to Europe.

The type of this sub-family is —

The Eed-headed Pyranga {Pyranga rubice2)s).

FRINGILLID.E.

243

SUB-FAMILY IV.
Fringillin^. The Finches proper-.

Gen. Charac. — Bill short, couic, and more or less broad at the base, with
the culmen sloping and the sides compressed to the tip, which is generally
entire ; the gonys long and advancing upwards ; the wings more or less
lengthened and pointed ; the tail varying in length, sometimes with the end
of the feathers acuminated ; the tarsi as long as, or shorter than, the
middle toe, slender and transversely scaled ; the toes more or less long and
slender, the hind toe moderate ; the claws generally long, curved, and acute.

Fig. 101. — THE CHAFFINCH.

(Frliigilla ccelebs.)

Birds belonging to tliis sub-family are found in
various parts of Europe, Asia, Africa, botli Xortli
and South America, and Australia. They generally
frequent open and cultivated places, but some prefer
the wild and mountainous districts ; they live in
flocks, several species sometimes congregating to-
gether, especially during the winter months. Those
that reside in the more northern latitudes migrate
southwards during the cold season, and those inha-
biting the higher altitudes of the mountains seek
the lower grounds on the approach of winter. Theii'

244 CONIROSTRES.

food consists, during tlie winter months, of seeds of
various plants and trees, sucli as the alder, maple,
&c. ; they likewise feed upon grains, which they
seek for on the ground, especially in stubble lands ;
many, however, live on insects and their larvse
when procurable. Their song consists of three or
four notes, which, though short, frequently possess
great sweetness, and are agreeably varied. The
nest of some is formed upon trees and in bushes of
mountainous districts, while others prefer gardens,
orchards, and plantations ; it is composed of grass,
moss, and lichens, interwoven with wool, and lined
with feathers and hair. The eggs are four or five
in number.

The type of this sub-family is —

TheCh.Siffi.Tich.{Fringillacoelebs). The Chaffinch is gene-
rally spread through Europe from Sweden to Gibraltar,
and is even found on the coast of Africa. Some of these
birds migrate in great numbers in autumn ; but these
flocks are said to consist of females only, while the males
remain in their native comitry ; indeed, the specific
name {Ccelehs, or the bachelor), given by Linnaeus to this
bird, is in allusion to the lonely condition of the deserted
males. It is not impossible, however, that there may be
some mistake in tliis, for, from the moulting time to tlie
month of February, and more particularly in autumn,
the two sexes exhiljit colours nearly similar. At all
events, it is quite certain that many females remain, as
well as males, and assist in forming, together with the
Tree-finches, Greenfinches, Buntings, and other birds,
those mnumerable flocks which during winter are seen in
our fields, and which, when the earth is covered with
snow, come before our barns to share the daily food of
our domestic fowls. From the early days of spring they
begin to pair, and the mated cou])les isolate themselves.
Some resort to our gardens and orchards, others retire
into coppice-woods, which they animate by their gaiety,
and also by their song, which is by no means devoid of
melody ; indeed, the Chaffinch, when taken from the
nest, will imitate the notes of the Canary and of the

FRINGILLID.^:.

2^5

Nightingale, if kept near those birds, and can even be
taught to articuUite some words.

Their song usually consists of a sharp repetition of a
sound resembling the word " Fink" or " Pink," and it is
from the former of these that the word Fiiich is derived.
Although his musical powers are by no means perfect, the
note of the Chaffinch is always heard with pleasure, being-
associated with early spring ; and the sprightliness of the
little bird renders him a universal favourite except with
gardeners, whose radish-seed, sowed at a period when
food is usually rather scarce, is too great a temptation for
him to resist, and which he will frequently steal, almost
before it has been covered by the soil.

^i^^v^

///^/^

--^f^

:. '' \

NEST OF GOLDFIXCH.

246 CONIROSTRES.

SUB-FAMILY V.
Emberizin.e. ' TJie Buntings.

Gen. Chaeac. — Bill conical, acute, compressed, witli the culmen more or less
straight to the tip, the lateral margins siuuated, and more or less inflected ;
the interior of the upper mandible furnished with a palatine knob, which is
more or less apparent ; the wings moderate and somewhat pointed ; the
tarsi about the length of the middle toe, and scutellated ; the hind toe longer
than the inner, and robvist; the claws slender, and more or less curved.

r ^

"v"^ ..'-1;

'- ^--j^r*? - >

The birds wliicli compose this family are met
with both in the Old and New Worlds but especially
in the former. They collect together in flocks by
themselves, or in company with other seed-feeding
birds, at the approach of winter, and remain in
society till the return of spring, when they scatter
themselves singly or in pairs Over the open country.
They do not remove to any great distance in their
migrations ; their flight is undulating and quick ;

FKINGILLIDJE. 247

tlieir food consists of the seeds of plants, grasses,
and reeds, and, in warm weather, insects. They
build in low bushes, or on the ground, behind tufts
of grass. Their nest is composed of dried grasses
lined with softer materials. They lay from four to
six eggs.

The Buntings are distinguished from other Pas-
serine birds by their conical, short, and straight
bill, but more especially by the existence of a knob
in the roof of the upper mandible, which is made
use of as an anvil on which to break and comminute
hard seeds. They do not, however, feed exclusively
on vegetable matter, but, like most of their order,
subsist partly upon animal substances.

The type of the race is —

The Yellow Ammer (Emberiza citrinella). Few of
our native birds are more delicately or more beautifully
coloured than the Yellow Ammer, or Y^ellow Buntmg,
but, being very abundant, it is less noticed than it
deserves, except as an intiiider, with other granivorous
birds, into the stack-yard. During the ' winter the
Yellow Ammers collect in small flocks, or associate with
flocks of' the Common Bunting (Emberiza miliaris). In
sprmg, durmg the pairing season, the male may often be
observed on the topmost twig of a hedgerow, uttermg a
monotonous chirp : if approached, it flies off, keeping along
the liedge, and settles at a little distance ; if followed, it
repeats this short flight again and again. The Y^'ellow
Ammer builds on the ground, in low bushes, in beds of
nettles or other herbage : its nest is formed of chied
grasses, mth a lining of hair. The eggs are of a pale
purplish white, with streaks and waving marks of choco-
late-colour. This species ls to be met with throughout
the greater pai-t of Europe.

We owe to Mr. Yarrell the restoration to this bird of
its origmal name Yellow Ammer, so often printed and
pronounced "Yellow Hammer." The word " Ammer "
is the common German word for Bunting ; as, for example,
" Sclmee Ammer," Snow Buntmg ; " Garten Ammer,"
Garden Bunting; "Rohr Ammer," Reed Bunting, &c.

248

CONIROSTRES.

Our mode of prefixing the letter H to the word is erro-
neous. In Italy these birds are caught in great numbers
and fattened for the table, in the same way as the
Ortolan.*

* The Ortolan Bunting {Eniberiza hortulanus), so esteemed as
a dainty, appears to be confined to the southern parts of Europe,
where, however, it is to a certain extent migratory. When they
first arrive in France they are far from fat ; but human ingenuity
soon makes them in good condition. They are taken in great num-
bers with nets, and fattened by shutting them in a dark chamber,
in which is placed a lantern surrounded plentifully with oats and
millet. The darkness seems to have the effect of confining the
whole attention of the bird to its favourite food, thus placed within
view ; and it is said they will thus die of suffocation from their own
fat, if left entirely to themselves. Another mode is by confining
them in cages which admit a little light only to the box containing
their food. When thus fattened, the Ortolan is said to be one of
the most exquisite morsels in the epicure's carte du jour.

FRINGILLID.E. 249

SUB- FA JULY VJ.
Alaudin^e. The Larks.

Gen. Charac. — Bill short, and more or less lengthened and conical ; the wings
with the tertials generally as long as the primaries ; the claws lengthened,
more or less curved, and the hind one very long and generally straight.

Fig. 103.— the wooulakk.
{Alcnida (trborea.)

The birds composing tliis sub-family are peculiar
to the Old World. They are generally found in
open arable land, or on plains, though some seem
to prefer cultivated ground. As the winter ap-
proaches, they migrate southwards, c'ongregating in
liocks. Some of the species sing while rising into
the air, mounting to an immense height. Their
flight is undulating, and they walk and run on the
ground with ease. They delight to roll in the dust,
drain and various seeds form their principal food,
but in summer they procure grasshoppers, gnats.

250

CONIEOSTRES.

and small worms. Their nests are of very simple
construction, and placed upon the ground.

The type of the race is —

The Skylark [Alauda arvends), the musician of the
fields ; its delightful song, like a hymn of joy, announces
the approaching sj^ring, and accompanies the earliest
blush of morning. It is heard from the very commence-
ment of those fine days which succeed the cold and gloom
of winter, and its notes are the first to welcome the
}>loughman to his task. During the noontide of day it is
silent, but when the sun declines towards the west, the
lark fills the air with his varied and tuneful warblings.

Fig. 104.— the skylaek.
(Alauda arvenms.)

" Rising, as it were by a sudden impulse, from its nest oi-
lowly retreat, it bursts forth, while but yet a few feet
from the ground, into exuberant song ; and with its head
turned to the breeze, now ascending perpendicularly, now
veering to the right or left, but not describing circles, it
pours forth an unbroken stream of melody, until it has

feingillim;.

251

reached an elevation computed to be about a tliouj^and feet :
to an observer on the earth it has dwindled to a mere speck.
It then begins to descend, not with an uniform down-
ward motion, but by a series of droppings, with intervals
of simple hovering, during which it seems to be resting on
its wmgs. Finally, as it draws near the earth, it ceases
its song, and descends more rapidly ; but before it touches
the ground, it recovers itself, sweeps away with an almost
horizontal flight for a short distance, and disappears in
the herbage." — Rev. C. A. Johns.

•>n9

CONIROSTEES.

SUB-FAMILY VII.

Pyrrhulix.e.*

The Bullfinches.

Gen. Charac. — Bill very short, strong, more or less compressed, and entire,
with the culmen arched and convex; the vrings moderate and somewhat
rounded ; the tail moderate and slightly emarginated ; the tarsi short and

' scutellated ; and the toes moderate, the lateral ones generally unequal.

Fig. lOJ.— the bullfinch.
(Pyrrh ida rnbicilla.)

The birds composing this sub-family are inha-
bitants of Europe and the northern parts of India,
where they are usually found in the woods and
jungles. They are generally seen in pairs during
the spring, and afterwards congregate in small par-
ties for the remainder of the year. Their food
varies with the season; in the spring it consists
principally of buds, and at this time the Bullfinches
occasion much injury to the fruit and other trees ;

* TTvppovXag. pyrroulas, from Trvppog, pyrros, r&l^ f.ame-coloured.

FEIXGTLLID.^i:. 258

wliile during tlie summer and autumn tliey seem to
prefer tlie seeds of various plants. Their nest is
carelessly put togetlier and shallow^ formed of small
twigs lined with fibres of roots, and placed in the
forked branch of a tree. The eggs are from four
to five in number.

The type of this sub -family is —

The Bullfinch {Pyrrhula ruhicilla), a bird equally re-
markable for the simple elegance of its plumage and the
variety of its song ; it is, moreover, but too well known
from the devastation which it causes among our fruit-
trees. During winter the food of the Bullfinches consists
exclusively of seeds of various kinds, either picked uj)
from the ground or gathered from herbs and shrubs. In
spring, unfortunately for the gardener, their taste alters,
and nothing \vill satisfy them but the blossoms of fruit-
trees, especially those which are cultivated. They attack,
indeed, the buds of the sloe and hawthorn as well, but
of these, being valueless, no one takes any note. Keeping-
together m small family parties, all uninvited, they pay
most unwelcome visits to gooseberries, j^lums, and cherries,
and, if undisturbed, contmue to haunt the same trees until
all hope of a crop is destroyed. Gooseberry bushes are
left denuded of flower-buds, which have been deliberately
picked off and crushed between their strong mandibles ;
while the leaf-buds, situated principally at the extremity
of the branches, are neglected. Plums and cherry trees
are treated in like manner, until the ground is strewed
with the bud-scales and rudiments of flowers.

The Bullfinch builds its nest in some secluded copse or
thick hedge, employing as materials small twigs and dry
grass, with a lining of fibrous roots : it usually lays five
eggs. Less frequently it places its nest in a shrubberj^
or garden hedge.

The ordinary notes of the Bullfinch are not musical ;
but these birds possess a remarkable talent for imitation,
and, when taken young, may be taught to whistle many
tunes with considerable accuracy. Their musical instruc-
tion is generally communicated by means of a bird-organ,
and requires considerable time and care, as the birds must
be in the habit of hearing the tunes they have to learn for
many months, in order that they may acquire them per-

N

254

CONIROSTRES.

fectly ; and when they begin to exert their musical
powers, they must be kept from hearing other birds, and
from time to time assisted in their recollection, lest they
should transpose the passages in any way, or mix two airs
together. Hence a good piping Bullfinch necessarily
fetches a high price. Great numbers of them are, how-
ever, trained in Germany, and imported into London
every year.

FRIXGILLID.E.

•):\f\

SUB-FAMILY VI 1 1.

LoXIANyE.'""

The Crossbills.

Gen. Chaeac. — Bill more or less broad, but compressed towards the tips,
which sometimes cross each other, and curved, or the upper overhanging
that of the lower mandible ; the wings more or less lengthened, pointed, and
sometimes rounded ; the tail moderate and emarginated, or graduated ; the
tarsi short, with the toes moderate.

if

Fig. 106 — the coiiiiox crossbill.
(Loxia carinrosira.)

These birds are found in the North of Europe,
America, and Asia, migrating in summer to the
higher latitudes, where they frequent the great
forests of pine and fir trees, the seeds of which
form their principal subsistence. These seeds are
detached by means of the strong lever they possess
in the remarkable formation of their bill, which is

ilcmfinrj, cross-ivisc ; So called from the shape of

* \o^6c. loxos,
the beak.

M 9

256 CONIROSTRES.

admirably adapted for wrencliing asunder tlie scales
of the cones ; it also enables tlieni to slit open apples
and pears for tlie purpose of obtaining the pips,
and they thus occasionally commit great havoc in
orchards.

Their nest is built among the branches of pine-
trees, and is composed of straws, with a few twigs
upon the outside, and a lining of fine grass and hair
within. The young birds, while in the nest, do not
present the peculiar crossing of the mandibles cha-
racteristic of the adult, this being unnecessary to
them so long as they are supplied with food by their
parent. In confinement these birds are very parrot-
like in many of their actions, frequently climbing
about the wires of the cage w4th their hooked bill ;
hence they are sometimes called German Parrots.
In Germany, where they are abundant. Crossbills
constitute a favourite article of food, and are regu-
larly exposed for sale in the markets.

The Common Crossbill {Loxia curvirostra) is by no
means of uiifrequent occurrence in the northern parts of
our own country. These birds feed principally on the seeds
of various kmds of firs, which they extract from the cone
by the joint action of their beak and tongue. The alder
and other trees are sometimes visited, and they liave been
noticed to resort to thistles and pick out the seeds from
them. Theu' mode of operation is this : they first fix
themselves across the cone, then bring the points of their
mandibles from a crossed or lateral position to be imme-
diately over each other ; in tliis reduced compass they in-
sinuate their beak between the scales, and then opening
them, not in the usual manner, but by drawing the
inferior mandible sideways, force open the scales. At
this stage, the end of the tongaie becomes necessary, and
this organ is uo less admmibly adapted for the service
i-equired. While the points of the beak press the scale
from the body of the cone, the tongue is enabled to direct
and insert its cutting scoop underneath the seed, and the
food thus dislodged is trp.iisferred to the mouth. When
the mandibles are separated laterally in the performance
of this operation, the bird has an uninterrupted view of

FRINGILLIDiE, Z57

the seed in the cavity, with the eye on that side to wliich
the under mandible is curved, and thus can direct the
movements of its tongue with the greatest precision.
The beak of the Crossbill, then, ftir from being a defect
in the organization of this bird, is a perfect instrument
always at its owner's command ; faultless alike in design
and execution, and exquisitely adapted to its work — not
an easy one — of performing, by a single process, the
offices of splitting, opening, and securing the contents of
a fir-cone ; and he must be a bold man who would venture
to suggest an improvement in the mechanism.

" The nest of the Crossbill is placed on two small
branches of a young spruce-pine tree, or at the end of a
leafy bough, often at a considerable height from the
ground. It is circular, and composed of the small twigs
of the s]n-uce-pine. This nest is of large dimensions, the
diameter being two feet or more. The entrance is round,
but so small that the bird must necessarily squeeze itself
into it : the interior is not larger than a man's fist. Such
are the nests prepared for the winter. Those intended
for the summer are much less in size, more open, and of a
much lighter construction. This bird, therefore, builds
its nest differently according to the season of the year and
the temperature. The female lays from three to four
eggs of a somewhat small size, and of a dirty white colour,
thickly marked with brown spots. When the young
lea^e the nest, they follow the mother, who feeds them,
but at this jDeriod the male deserts the family : he is
never seen in company with a female that has newly-
fledged young. These accompany their mother ; they
keep up a terrible noise, screech most unmercifully, and
flutter theii' wings. When feeding the young, the female
allows the cone to fall to the ground. The young follow
her to the cone, out of which she j^lucks the seeds, while
they, gaping and screeching, surround her on all sides." —
Lloyd's SGandinavian Adventures.

258

CONIROSTRES.

SUB-FAMILY IX.
Phytotomix.e.* The Plant-tmtter,

Gen. Charac. — Bill short, conical, with the lateral margins serrated.

:->,4^f^%#r¥-^.fei;//^'y^

'-'%/.

Fig. 107. — the Chilian plant-cutter.
{Fhytotoma rara.)

The Plant-cutters constitute another group of the
large-billed Finches, These birds are peculiar to
the temperate regions of South America, where
they frequently visit the environs of inhabited and
cultivated places. They live in pairs or in small
troops, despoiling gardens and orchards, and devas-
tating plantations by cutting off the buds and fruits.
Their flight is short and low, but sometimes pro-
longed, and their habits resemble those of the
Tanagers. Their note is excessively disagreeable,

* (pvTov, pliyton, a 'plant ; roixi), tome, a cut or incision.

FEINGILL1DJ5. 259

ap23roac4iiiig the noise made by tlie sliarpening of a
saw. They feed on grains, buds, and insects. They
are generally of moderate size, about equalling the
Bullfinch in their dimensions. In order to enable
them to obtain their food, the margins of the upper
mandible are finely toothed.

The type of this sub-family —

The Chilian Plant-cutter {Phytotoma rara), is rather a
large species, being equal to a thrush in its dimensions. It
is a common bird in its native country, and is most
destructive to the crops. It is very fond of sprouting
corn, and, not content with eating the gi-een blades, it
seems to find such pleasure in the exercise of its bill, that
it cuts down hundreds of stalks, as if in mere wantonness,
and leaves the green stems strewed upon the ground. On
account of these destructive propensities, it is greatly
persecuted by the agriculturists, who assiduously shoot
and trap it ; and further aid in its extermination by
setting a price on its head, giving a certain sum to any one
who will bring in a dead bird. The nest is made on the
summit of a tree, and in some very retired situation ; so
that, in spite of all the persecution which it meets with,
the Plant-cutter still holds its ground against the farmers.
Its cry is rough, and resembles the name Eara, given to
it by the inhabitants of Chili.

260

CONIROSTRES.

FAMILY V.

COLTDyE.

The Colli

Gen. Chaeac. — Bill moderate, with the culmen elevated at the base, and the
sides compressed to the tij), which is acute j the nostrils placed in the middle
of a large membranous groove, with the opening small and exposed ; the
wings short ; the tail much lengthened and graduated ; the tarsi robust, and
the toes lengthened, the outer as long as the inner, the hind toe moderate,
united at the base of tbe inner toe, and directed forwards.

Fig. 108.— thk white-backed coly.

{Colius leticonotu^'.)

These birds are peculiar to tlie continent of Africa,
where they perch upon trees, amongst the branches

colidj:. 261

of wliicli tliey may be seen hopping from one to
another in searcli of the fruits or freslily-formecl
buds. Their flight consists of little more than
flitting from tree to tree ; and they have a peculiar
habit of suspending themselves by one foot, with the
head hanging downwards . Their feet are constructed
like those of the Swifts, with all four toes turned
forward. The tarsus, considering the size of the
bird, is unusually thick and strong ; and the claws
of all the toes are more curved than in ordinary
birds. They are rarely observed on the ground, the
peculiar formation of their feet not permitting them
to walk with ease. They build their nests in society,
.closely packed together on the same branch. The
nest is composed of flexible twigs, and lined with
feathers. Their eggs are from four to six in
number.

The White-backed Coly {Colius Uuconotus) is found in
Africa. It is a pretty bird, and as it traverses the
branches has a peculiarly elegant appearance, its long
tail seeming to balance the body, in the extraordinaiy
and varied attitudes it assumes ; and its highly moveable
crest being continually raised and depressed, gives it a
very spirite'd aspect. It is gregarious, living in little
companies of four or five in number, and is continually
running and jumping from bough to bough m searcli of
its food, which consists of fruit and buds. The grasp
of its feet is very powerful, as much so as that of
the Parrot, so that it may often be seen hangmg by its
feet, with its head downwards, and occasionally remaining
for some time suspended by a single foot ; mdeed, Le
Yaillant says that this bird, in common with other
members of the same family, is in the habit of sleeping in
this singular attitude ; and that in the early morning it
may be often foimd so benumbed with cold, that it may
be taken by hand before it can loose its hold from the
bough, which it grasps so firmly. Owmg to the structure
of its feet, which are almost wholly formed for climbing,
it is seldom seen on the ground, and when it has alighted,
is awkward in its movements. Among the boughs, how-
ever, it is all life and energy, leaping about with a vivacity
N 3

262

CONIROSTEES.

that reminds the observer of our common long- tailed
Titmouse. In mounting from branch to branch, as in
lowering themselves, the Colies frequently use tlieir beaks
to aid them, after the well-known practice of the Parrots.
The nests of the Colies are large and rounded, and are
generally placed in close proximity to each other, five or
six being often found on tlie same In-anch. They are
constructed of slender twigs externally, and lined with
mosses and soft feathei's. The number of eggs is from
four to six. When fat and in good condition, the flesh
of these l)irds is said to be delicate and tender.

m M.

MUSOPHAGID.^. 263

FAMILY Yl.
MusoPHAGiD.E.* The Plantain-eaters.

Gek. Charac. — Bill moderate, broad at the base ; the culmen much elevated,
curved, and the sides much compressed towards the tip, which is strongly
emarginated ; the wings more or less lengthened and rounded; the tail long
and broad; the tarsi moderate, strong, and covered in front with broad
transverse scales ; the toes long, and the outer one sometimes versatile.

Among the many adaptations of a more general
character whereby the ornithologist is enabled^ from
the mere examination of a skin, or a glance at a stuffed
specimen, to indicate the usual food and general
habits of birds submitted to inspection, it occasion-
ally happens that special peculiarities are observable,
the object of which it is difficult to understand
without a knowledge of the circumstances under
which a given species subsists. Many localities
produce delicious fruits in rich abundance, and to
obtain these more conveniently, the birds appointed
to feed upon them present remarkable modifications
of structure. The plantains, for example, throughout
many regions of tropical countries, afford a supply
of food so plentiful, that a whole family of the
feathered creation has been named from its predi-
lection for this particular diet.

This family embraces the Plantain-eaters and the
Hoaitzins.

* Musa, the plauUxin ; (})dyuj, phago. to >''d.

264

CONIROSTEES.

SUB-FAMILY L
MusoPHAGiN.E. The Plantain-eaters proper.

Gen. Charac. — The outer toe capable of l)eiug placed posterioi-ly.

Fig. 109 — the violet plantain-eater
{Musophagu violacea. )

These birds are natives of Africa^ where they are
not at all uncommon^ and may be often seen in the
forests, flitting among the branches of lofty trees,
gliding among the bonghs with great adroitness,
and displaying their silky plumes to the best ad-
vantage. They are wary birds, and seem to have
tolerably accurate ideas respecting the range of shot;
for they generally keep to the higher parts of the
trees, and seldom allow themselves to be approached
within the range of a gun. Their food consists
almost entirely of plantains and other fruits, which
their large beak seems especially formed to procure.

MUSOPHAGID,?:. 265

Tliey are all handsome birds^ their dimensions
resembling those of the European Jay, and their
plumage glancing with violet, green, purple, and
red of different shades.

The type of the race is —

The Violet Plantain-eater (Musojyhaga violacea). This
bird is found about Senegal and the Gold Coast. It is
remarkable for the extraordinary shape and dimensions
of the beak, which is everywhere large and 2)rominent,
but especially swollen towards the base, where it expands
into a large shield-like mass of horny substance, which
spreads over the forehead as far as the crown, where it
termmates in a semicircular thickened line. The ridge
of the beak is greatly arched, and its sides are much com-
pressed. Its colour is as singular as its shape — a fine
golden yellow, passing into crimson on the upper part of
the base. The top of the head is crimson, not unlike
that of the beak, and the feathers are very soft and fine,
liavmg a velvety or plushdike aspect. The general colour
of the plumage is very deep violet, appearing black in the
shade, and glossed with rich green in certain lights.

Another species found m Southern Africa and in the
extensive eastern forests, Le Vaillant represents as being
of so inquisitive a disposition, that it spontaneously
approaches a man or a quadnipecl, leaping from tree to
tree, and uttering a cry of satisfaction, which is expressed
by the syllable cor uttered with a prolonged and guttural
articulation, and with a quiver of the tongue. Its love-
call has been represented by the word corouw uttered
eight or ten times in succession, and its note of alarm has
been compared to the abrupt sounds of a nnlitary timmpet.
The female lays four bluish-white eggs in the large holes
of trees.

266

CONIROSTEES.

SUB-FAMILY II.

Opisthocomix-e.* The Hoaitzins.

Gen. Char.vc— Toes lengthened, and the outer toe not capableof being placed
posteriorly.

M'^y^^ y

Fig. 110.— the hoaitzin.
( Op iath oco m ti s crldu tus.)

These remarkable birds are peculiar to tlie northern
parts of South America. They live in small flocks
on the banks of rivers^ and are by no means shy,
allowing the hunters to approach very near. If
alarmed at the report of a gun, the flock takes
flight, crying era, era, and they all alight on the
same branch a few paces further ofi*. Their food
consists of the leaves of a tree, called by the natives
Avingo, or of those of the Armn arhorescens, which

* uTTiaOe, opisthe, behind; KOj^irj, kome, a lock of hair ; So called
from the crest at the back of the head.

musophagid.t:. 267

causes the flesli to have a musky smell, and to be
used as a bait for certain fishes.

The Hoaitzin (Opisthocomus cristatus). The true posi-
tion of this curious bird must still be considered as doubtful.
Originally described as a Pheasant by Linnaeus, it has been
shifted about by different authors between the Gallina-
ceous and Passerine birds, its singular structure 2:)resenting
a combination of both. It has a large convex bill, with
the nostrils pierced in the middle of the upper mandible.
The mandibles are denticulated within the margins, and
the head is furnished with a large erectile crest. In
these, and some other ])articulars the Hoaitzm would
seem to approach the Musophagidse, with which Mr. G.
R. Gray has placed it.

Whatever may be its due systematic position, the
Hoaitzin is a very remarkable bird. It is nearly as large as
a Peacock, which it resembles in many of its movements.
Its plumage is tawny-brown, with numerous white spots
and streaks upon the wings and tail. The naked skin
about its face and throat is bluish, and the elongated
slender feathers which form its crest are wdiite upon one
side and black on the other. These birds exhibit little
fear of man, and as their flesh possesses such a dis-
agreeable odour, compounded of musk and castoreum, as
to be quite useless for food, they are probably seldom
disturbed.

2(38 SYNDACTYLY..

TRIBE V.

Syndactyly.

The Fiftli Tribe of Passerine birds comprehends
several families^ recognizable by the peculiar con-
formation of their feet.* Their external toe is
almost as long as the middle toe, to which it is
joined by a membrane that reaches as far as the
last joint but one, a structure obviously intended to
give great firmness to the grasp while in the act of
perching. In this division Cuvier included the Bee-
eaters, the Todies, the Motmots, the Kingfishers, and
the HornhiUs, with which various other birds have
been associated by subsequent winters. f

FAMILY I.

CoRACiD^. The Boilers.

Gen. Chaeac— Bill more or less lengthened and broad at the base, with the
sides compressed towards the tip, which is hooked ; the nostrils basal,
lateral, with the opening linear or oval ; the wings long and pointed ; the
tail generally short and even ; the tarsi short ; the toes moderate, sometimes
free, or the outer toe united at the base with the middle one.

These birds are distinguished by great beauty of
plumage ; they are for the most part confined to hot
countries, a few only being inhabitants of the more
temperate regions. Their food consists mostly of
insects, but some of them subsist wholly or in 23art
upon vegetable substances.

To this family belong the Rollers proper, the
Todies, the Boatbills, and the Motmots.

* See " Animal Creation," p. 431.

fin the Tabular Views these birds will be found arranged with

the FiSSIKOSTRES.

CORACID-E.

2C)9

CORACIASIN^.

SUB-FAMILY I.

The Roller's proj)er.

Gen. Chaeac. — The EoUers have the wings of moderate dimensions; the tail
moderate, with the side feathers sometimes lengthened ; the tarsi short ;
the t(Jes moderate, and free at the base.

Fig. 111.— the gakeulous jay, oe common eollee.
{^Coracias garrula.)

These birds are indigenous to Africa^ India, New
Guinea, and Australia, but, owing to tlieir migratory
habits, are sometimes met with in various parts of
Europe, and even in England. As their food consists
of insects and fruits, they are obliged to move from
place to place, according to the seasons. They
mostly frequent wooded districts, where they may
be met with, either singly or in pairs, perched on
the dead branch of some tree, from whence they
occasionally take flight to a short distance to capture

270 SYNDACTYL.^.

an insect, and having seized it, return to the same
spot. Their nest is placed in a hole of some decayed
tree. The female lays four or five eggs.

The Garrulous Jay, or Common Roller {Corcvcias gar-
rula), is an inhabitant of Africa, but visits Europe, and
even Great Britain, in the summer time. On the steppes
oi Southern Russia it is almndant, and goes by the name
of the Stepi)e Parrot, partly on account of its scpialling
voice, partly on account of its beautiful ]>lumage, in
which green, blue, yellow, and black strive for supre-
macy ; indeed, it is described as " resembling a moving
rainbow " when flymg in the sunshine. In Malta and
the Mediterranean islands it stays throughout the summer,
and breeds. In central Europe it usually inhabits dense
forests, where it builds its nest in the holes of trees, gene-
rally preferring the birch ; whence it is known in Germany
as the Birch Jay. Where trees are scarce, as in Maltii,
it breeds upon the ground, or in holes of old buildings ;
and in the treeless regions of Southern Russia it makes
its nest in holes in the clay banks of rivers. Its eggs,
which are usually four in number, are exactly similar in
shape and in their j^ure white colour, to those of our
common Kingfisher and Bee-eater, to which it is nearly
related. It is a noisy and restless bird. In the autumn
the young become very fat, and acquire a good flavour,
so tliat they are eagerly sought after for the table.

COEACID.E.

SUB-FAMILY II.

TODIN.E.

The Todies

Gen, Chaeac— Bill lengthened, much depressed, and slightly compressed
towards the tip, which is rounded or pointed ; the gonys long, slightly
ascending and rounded beneath; the nostrils lateral, with the opening ante-
rior and exposed; the wings short and rounded; the tail moderate, and
rather emarginated ; the tarsi moderate and slender ; the toes unequal, the
outer toe longer than the inner, and both more or less united at the base,
the hind toe short ; the claws small.

Fig. 11:

-THE GREEN TODY.
{Todug firidi^.)

These birds are found in the tropical parts of
America, and in the West-India islands. They are

272 SYNDACTYL.E.

usually seen singly, in lone and moist places, sitting
in a croucliing manner on the branch of a busli, with
the head drawn in between the shoulders. They
exhibit little timidity, and may be approached so
near as sometimes to be caught by the hand. They
live principally upon orthopterous and other insects,
which they seize with avidity.

The typical species is —

The Green Tody (Todus viridis), a very small bird,
scarcely bigger than a wren, common in all parts of
Jamaica, where, conspicuous from its bright grass-green
coat and crimson velvet gorget, it hops about the trees,
searching for minute insects, and occasionally uttering a
querulous sibilant note ; but more usually it is seen sit-
ting patiently on a twig, with the head drawn in, the
beak pointing upwards, and its loose plumage puffed out,
so that it appears much larger than it really is, and pre-
sents a general aspect of stupidity. But this abstraction
is more apparent than real ; if we watch it, we shall see
that its odd -looking grey eyes are glancing hither and
thither, and that ever and anon the bird salhes forth upon
a short flight, snaps at something in the air, and I'eturns
to his twig. " One captured with a net, and turned into
a room, began immediately to catch flies and other minute
insects that flitted about, particulai*ly the destructive little
clothes-moths. At this employment he continued inces-
santly from earliest dawn till dusk. He would sit on
the edge of the table, on shelves, or on the floor, ever
glancing about, and now and then flitting into the air,
when the snap of his beak announced a capture, and he
would return to the same station to eat it. He would
peep into the lowest and darkest corners, even under the
tables, for the little globose long-legged spider, which he
would drag from their webs and swallow. He sought
them also about the ceiling and walls, and found very
many. I have said that he continued all day at this
employment without intermission, and though I took no
account, I judged that on an average he made a caj^ture
per minute : we may thus form some idea of the immense
number of insects destroyed l)y these and similar birds,
bearing in mind that this was in a room where the human

CORACID.¥.. 273

eye scai'cely recognized half a dozen insects altogether,
and that in the free aii' insects must be much more nume-
rous." — Mr. Gosse.

The Green Tody is exclusively an insect-feeder, and
burrows in the earth to breed. The banks of ravines,
and the scarps of dry ditches, are excavated by its feet,
in which two out of the three front toes are united toge-
ther, having only the terminal joint free. The hole runs
into the bank some eight inches or a foot, forming a
winding gallery, rounded at the bottom and terminating
in a sufficiently wide lodging lined with j^liant fibres, dry
moss, and cotton. In this retreat four or five grey-brown
spotted eggs are laid, and the young are fed till they are
fully fledged. Mr. Gosse observes that the inhabitants of
Jamaica are not in the habit of domesticating many of
the native birds, else there is one of the species that would
become a favourite pet. In a state of liberty it attracts
the admiration of the most unobservant, and an European
is charmed with it. As it sits on a twig in the verdure
of spring, its grass-green plumage is sometimes undistin-
guishable from the leaves in which it is embowered ;
itself looking like a leaf, a little change of position bring-
ing its throat into the sun's rays, the light suddenly
gleams as from a glowing coal. Occasionally, too, this
crimson plumage is pufied out into a globose form, when
it might easily be mistaken for a beautiful fruit.

274

SYNDACTYL.E.

SUB-FAMILY III.

ErHVLAiMiXzE.* The Boathills.

Gen. Chakac. — Bill large, more or less depressed, and extremely broad at the
base, with the culmen curved, and the sides gradually compressed to the
tip, which is slightly emargiuated ; the gonys long and ascending ; the
nt)8trils lateral, more or less near to the base, and exposed ; the wings
moderate, with the third and fourth quills equal and longest ; the tail gene-
rally moderate, graduated, or forked ; the tarsi short ; and the toes long,
with the lateral ones unequal, and the outer toe united to the middle one for
some distance.

Fig 113 — the collared eukylaimus.
{Enrijluimng ochromaluti.)

These birds are found in India and tlie neiglibour-
ing islands : tliey reside in small flocks in the humid

* ti'pvQ, eurus, 'broad; \aijioQ, laimos, tlie throat.

CORACID.E.

275

forests and jungles^ especially such as abound with
rivers and marshes. Their food consists of insects
and worms ; at times they feed also on berries and
fruits.

Tlie t}^ical species is —

The Collared Eurylaimus (Eurylalmus ochromalus),
described only from stuffed specimens.

Sir Stamford Raffles says, " Tlie Eurylaimus Javan-
icus frequents the banks of rivei's and lakes, feeding on
insects and worms. It builds its nest pendent from the
branch of a tree or bush which overhangs the water."
Mr. Horsfield found it in Java, in one of the most dis-
tant and inaccessible parts, covered with extensive forests,
and abounding with rivers and marshes. Nothing further
is known of the habits of these birds.

4 i^' .^ ^'^

27G

SYNDACTYLY].

SUB-FAMILY IV.

MOMOTIN.E.

The Motmots.

Gkn. Charac — Bill rather lonpr, straight, more or less elevated and 1)road at
the base, with the sides compressed to the tip, which is slightly hooked and
obtuse, the lateral margins more or less strongly serrated ; the gonys long
and slightly ascending ; the nostrils basal and lateral, with the opening
small and rounded; wings moderate and rounded, with the fourth, fifth, and
sixth quills nearly equal and longest ; tail lengthened and graduated, with
the two middle feathers usually longer than the others ; tarsi as long as the
middle toe, and covered in front with narrow transverse scales ; toes
unequal, the inner toe short, and slightly united, the hind toe rather short
and weak ; the claws moderate, much compressed, and curved.

Fig. 114.— iHK motmot.
{Frionifes Momota.)

COKACIDJC. 277

Tlie Motmots are distinguislied from tlie Todies
by having the margins of the mandibles distinctly
serrated for a considerable portion of their length ;
they also possess a pectinated tongue. Their tail is
long, and the shafts of the two middle feathers,
which are the longest, are entirely bare of barbs for
a considerable portion of their length ; the base is
furnished with barbs, then comes the bare portion,
and the tip again presents the ordinary appearance
of a feather.

The Motmots are peculiar to the tropical parts of
America, and to some of the West India islands.
They seem to prefer the deep shade of the forests,
or the dark recesses of buildings. They are usually
seen perched on a branch or on some projection,
keeping their head drawn in between the shoulders,
with a peculiarly solemn expression, uttering from
time to time a melancholy croak. Early in the
morning, and in the dusk of the evening, they
appear more lively, watching for any passing insect
that may approach sufficiently near, upon which they
dart with a short flight. They likewise feed on
frogs, lizards, and small snakes ; these are sei^^ed
with the point of the bill, and then, by a toss of the
head, jerked into the throat and swallowed. The
eggs of birds also form a poi'tion of their food. The
nest of one species is stated by Sir W. Jardiue to
have been found at the end of a long gallery exca-
vated in a bank of mud, sixd punning for five feet in
a direct line into the ground, terminating in another
gallery of similar length placed at an angle with the
first. The end of this long passage was enlarged,
and in the enlargement were three young Motmots,
huddled up on the top of a moving heap of maggots,
mixed with the remains of beetles and other insects.
It is probable that the barbs of the tail feathers of
the old birds may be worn away by friction against
the walls of the narrow tunnel leading to their nest.
Occasionally they will build in the deserted burrow
of a Cavy or Armadillo.

278

SYNDACTYL.E.

Dr. Azara describes some of these birds kept in
captivity as lieaA'^^ and stiff in their movements,
shuffling along on the ground by sudden and oblique
leaps, with their legs very wide apart ; their tail
was in constant motion. They were fed with bread
and raw meat, the latter of which they preferred.
If a small bird or a mouse were let loose in the
chamber in which the Motmots were kept, they
would pursue it in a determined manner ; and when
possessed of their prey, would strike it violently
against the ground with their bill. This did not
appear to be done merely for the purpose of killing
it, but to break the bones, in order to swallow the
whole more easily.

The type of this sub-family is —

The Motmot (Prionites Momota).

MEROPID^. 279

FAMILY II.
Meropid.e. The Bee-eaters.

Gex. Charac. — Bill longer than the head, \yith both mandibles curved and
acutely pointed, the sides compressed and sloping from the culmen ; nostrils
basal, lateral, rounded, and partly hidden by short bristles ; wings more or
less long and pointed; tail long, broad, and the middle feathers sometimes
prolonged beyond the lateral ones ; tarsi very short ; toes long, with the
lateral ones more or less united to the middle toe, the hind toe long and
broadly padded beneath.

These birds^ remarkable from the brilhancy of
then- plumage, are found m most parts of the Old
Continent. They seek the warmer climates during
the winter, and in summer visit temperate localities
in pursuit of their food, which consists almost ex-
clusively of insects. They usually perch singly, or
in small parties, on some prominent branch, or on
any objects from which they can see to a distance
around them. When an insect is observed, they fly
off, capture it on the wing, and then generally
return to the perch just quitted, where they again
station themselves to await the approach of another
victim. During the morning and evening they
sometimes congregate in companies, flying about
with much activity, and catching insects after the
manner of Swallows. Their flight is graceful and
capable of being sustained during a lengthened
migration. Their cry is loud, and consists of harsh
whistling notes, continually repeated during their
morning and . evening excursions. The young are
reared in holes, excavated horizontally in the sandy
banks of rivers, or in cliffs which are sufficiently
soft to be easily penetrated : these excavations are
prolonged interiorly to the depth of a yard and
more. The entrance is small, and the further end
expanded into a chamber of such dimensions that
the bird can turn in it with facility. Here the eggs,
usually four or five in number, are deposited on the
bare sand, or on a bed of moss or other soft material.
2

280

SYNDACTYL.li.

SUB-FAMILY.
Meropin.e. The Bee-eaters j^roper.

Fig. 115 —the throated bee-eater.
{MelittopJiagug gidaris.)

This, the only sub -family, embraces numerous
species common in Africa and the East, but one
only is accustomed to show itself in Europe, named
by English writers —

The Common Bee-eater {Merops Apiasfer). It is in
this country, however, one of the rarest of the feathered
race. It arrives in the southern j^arts of the Continent
in March, and departs to Avarmer regions in September.
It flies in flocks, usually at a considerable elevation, and

MEROPID^. 281

utters, witli hoarse and guttural voice, in startling dis-
accordance with its slender aspect, a continual cry of
gra ! gra ! gra ! It builds in deep horizontal holes in
sandy banks, which it excavates in whole or in part,
working vigorously with its feet and bill, and kicking out
the dry earth behind it with great perseverance. It lays
six or seven eggs, white, lucid, and almost spherical.
When the young are partly fledged, but not able to fly,
they creep to the mouths of their hole, where they seem
to enjoy the happy summer light and genial sunshine; but
on the least alarm they l-etreat, tail foremost, into the
recesses of their burrow, where they lie concealed. So
accustomed do they seem to this peculiar movement,
that when taken from the nest and placed in any more
exposed position, they endeavo\ir to escape by running
backwards ; indeed, for a time, they seem unable to walk
in any other direction. The Bee-eaters are exclusively
insectivorous, and prey almost entirely upon the hyme-
nopterous tribes. Although they often take their food
upon the wing, they also gather it from the ground ; and
whenever they espy the small hole which leads into the
nest of Wasp or Bembex, they place themselves close
beside it, and snap up the industrious tenants on their
exit or arrival. The appearance of these birds in England
is accidental, and they are unknown in America.

The type of the sub-family is— r

The Throated Bee-eater {Melittophagus gularis).

282

SYXDACTYL.E.

FAMILY III.

Trogonid.-e.

TJip. Trogons.

Gkn. Charac. — Bill short, strong, subtriangular, broader at the base than
elevated, with the tip and the margins generally toothed ; the gape furnished
with bristles ; the nostrils basal, lateral, more or less concealed by the pro-
jecting leathers ; the wings moderate and rounded, with the fourth and fifth
quills usually the longest ; the tail long and even, with the lateral feathers
graduated; the tarsi short, and more or less covered with feathers ; the toes
placed two anteriorly and two posteriorly, each pair unequal.

#

\wm

Fig. 116. — the golden-headed calurus.
{Calurus aunceps.)

TROGONID.E. 28o

SUB- FAMILY.
TrogoniN/E. TJte Troyons jjroper.

Tlie Trogons proper (tlie only sub-family of this
group), like the Toucans and the Cuckoos, have two
toes in front and two behind, and on this account
are not unfrequently regarded as belonging to the
Scansorial order; but the hinder toes are placed
perfectl}^ posteriorly, and as, from the manner of
their connection with the foot, they are incapable
of being moved from their ordinary position, the
Trogons may be regarded as the on»y birds whose
toes are absolutely in pairs. They are perhaps the
most sedentary birds in creation, and hence their
feet are the weakest, and seem to be constructed
for the sole purpose of sitting still. In addition to
their toes being in pairs, it may be remarked that
the two anterior are by far the longest, and are
connected together for nearly half their tength : the
two posterior toes are separated, and the outer one
is nearly half the length of the inner.

These splendid birds are many of them peculiar
to tropical America, but several species are met
with in India and the Eastern islands, as well as in
South Africa. They live solitarily in the gloomy
shades of forests, where they may be seen motion-
less on the branches, among the thickest foliage,
during the heat of the day ; but early in the morning
and in the evening they seek the more open though
still shady parts, and take up some position from
which they can see and dart after the insects flying
near, on which they principally subsist. Their flight
is rapid and undulating, but is not prolonged to any
considerable distance.

On the banks of the Amazon these birds are very
numerous, difl'ering in size from the Trogon vivid is, a
small species whose body is scarcely bigger than one

284 syndactyly:.

of our sparrows^ to the Ciirugua grsiiidc(Ca I urns anri-
ceps), twice the size of a jay. All have spreading tails,
and their loose plumage makes them look of greater
dimensions than they really are. At intervals, they
utter a mournful note, well imitated by their common
name, Gnruijua. This cry would inevitably betray
them to the hunter, but they are admirable ventrilo-
quists, and it is often impossible to discover them,
even when directly above the head of their pursuer.
The species vary as much in colour as in size, but
the backs of all are of a resplendent green or blue,
while beneath they are conspicuously ornamented
with red, or pink, or yellow. In the pairing season,
the male has a very melancholy note, which is never
uttered at any other time than when the female is
sitting. They begin to pair about April, when they
take possession of the hole of a rotten tree, or the
excavations made by ants ; and here the female lays
three or four white eggs in the decayed wood and
dust ; or, if there be no dust, they bruise the wood
into powder by means of their strong beak. The
young, when first hatched, are quite destitute of
feathers, and the old birds feed them with small
worms, caterpillars, and insects.

The type of the sub-family, —

The Peacock Trogon (Trogon pavo^iimis), is a native of
the Amazonian forest, and well deserves its name, as it
is not only splendid in the colours of its plumage but
elegant in form. On account of the looseness of its fea-
thers, it is not able to cha-^e insects m the air with as
much adroitness as is exhibited by some other Trogons
having firmer plumage ; hence it feeds chiefly upon ber-
ries, fruits, and the insects it can pick oft' the branches
without being obliged to pursue them on the wing. While
engaged m search after food it is an active bird, running
about the boughs with great agiUty, and clinging with its
powerful feet in every attitude, seeming to care little
whether it be sittmg on a branch, after the custom of most
birds, or hanging with its head downwards like the Par-
rots. Altliough brilliant in its bedizenment, it is not so

TROGONID^.

285

easily seen a.s might be supposed, for its colour harmonizes
well with the foliage and bark of the trees among which
it dwells, and even the rich carmine of its under surface

Fig. 117. — the peacock tkogox.
(Trogon pavoninus.)

is not very conspicuous in that land of flowei^. Its head

is decorated with a curiously-shaped tuft of slight and

elastic feathers that s^jring from the forehead, and by

o 3

286

SYNDACTYL.E.

their jx'culiar curve overshadow the nostrils and a con-
siderable })ortion of the beak. This ci"est, together with
the head, the throat, the back, wing-coverts, and u})])er
tail-coA'erts, is of the richest imaginable green shot with
gold, and glowing with a changeable sheen as the breeze
plays with the delicate fibres of the plumage. The quill
feathers of the wing are black, as are the central feathers
of the tail. The upper tail-coverts are very long, flowing
gracefully over the stitfer feathers by which they are sup-
j)orted, and contrasting beautifully with their glossy black.
Tlie breast and remainder of the under surface of the body
are of a rich carmine.

IL, . lillll

ALC'EDlNID.i:. 28]

FAMILY IV.

Alcedinid.e.* The Kiiigjiiilters.

Gen. Charac— Bill more or less lengthened, generally straight, broad at the
base, with the tips of both mandibles usually acute ; the nostrils lateral ;
the wings more or less long and rounded ; the tail mostly short and rounded
at the sides ; the toes long, sometimes three before and one behind, some-
times two and two, and of various lengths.

This family includes, not only the Kingfishers,
but other nearly allied forms, characterized by the
shape of the beak, which is elongated and generally
quite straight, stout, broad at the base, and sharp at
the point ; they are likewise remarkable for the small
size of the tail and the shortness of the tarsi. The
toes are variable both in number and arrangement ;
sometimes there are three in front and one behind,
as in birds in general, while in rare instances one
toe is altogether deficient, and the foot has only two
toes in front and one behind. The wings are long
and rounded, and consequently these birds possess
considerable powers of flight. They all live upon
animal substances ; some, like our common King-
fisher, capture fish with great dexterity, whilst many
feed upon insects or upon small reptiles. In other
respects they exhibit great variety of habit.

To this family belong the Puff-birds, the Crab-
hunters, the true Kingfishers, and the Jacamars.

* Alcedo (Lat.), the Kinyfislier.

288

SYNDACTYLY.

SUB-FAMILY I.

BuCCONINiE.

The Pvff-hirds.

Gen. Chakac— Bill of various lengths, elevated and broad at the base, with
the tip curved, and sometimes hooked over that of the lower mandible;
nostrils lateral, basal, and hidden by the frontal plumes and bristles ; wings
more or less long, with the third to the fifth quills usually the longest; tail
mostly of moderate length ; tarsi short and robust, with the toes two before
and two behind, and of various lengths, the outer anterior toe the longest.

Fig. 118.— the variegated puff-bied.
{Bucco versicolor.)

These birds are found in tlie tropical parts of
America ; they appear to live solitary _, pensive, and
silent in the most retired parts of the forests, where
they choose some branch upon which they perch
for a long time, with their large head resting upon
their shoulders ; they are, however, soon called into
activity by the appearance of some coleopterous
insect, after which they dart, and having secured it.

ALCEDINID.E.

289

return to tlie same percli, wliicli tliey are said to
frequent for montlis. They make tlieir nests in the
holes of trees.

The best-known species is —

The Greater Pied Barbet (Bucco macrorhynchvs). In
shape these birds bear a close resemblance to the King-
fishers. Their food consists chiefly of insects, which they
procure much after the manner of the Woodpeckers,
prying into the hollows of trees, and striking away the
bark in tbeii- endeavours to secure the concealed prey.
They can cling to the perpendicular trunk of a tree, aud
support themselves by the pressure of their short stiff
tails against the bark. They also possess some of the
habits that belong to the Flycatchers, and, taking tlieir
perch upon a twig, will wait patiently until an unfor-
tunate insect passes within a short distance, when they
launch themselves on the devoted creature, and return to
the twig from which they started.

The type of this sub-fiimily is —

The Variegated Puff-bird {Bucco versicolor).

:\

290

syndactyly:.

SUB-FAMILY II.
HALCYONiNiE." The C7'ah-hu7iters.

Gen. Charac— Bill broad at the base, and gradually compressed towards the
tip, the lateral margins straight or turned upwards towards the end of the
upper mandible ; the gonys lengthened and gradually ascending, or curved
upwards to the tip of the lower mandible.

Fift. 119 —Lindsay's crab-huntek.
{Malci/OM, Lindsaiji.)

These birds are very widely distributed; tbey
occur in India and its Arcliipelago, in Africa, Aus-
tralia, and the islands of the South Sea. They
generally reside in open forests and in jungles, by
the sides of rivers and brooks ; some species, how-
ever, are rarely observed in the vicinity of water,
while others frequent cultivated places and plains.
They will often sit for a long time on a pole or the

* oXkvmv^ halcyon, the Kingfislwr, from aXc, hals, the sea., and
KVM, kuo, to conceive ; So called because the Kingfisher was said by
the ancients to hatch its eggs upon the sea.

ALCEDINID.E.

291

lower brancli of a tree, watching tlie space around
for the appearance of small reptiles, fish, crabs, or
insects, from all of which the}^ derive their sub-
sistence : some species examine the flowers of the
cocoa-nut for insects contained within them. Their
nest is built in the hollow trunk of a tree, and the
eggs are usually three or four in number.

One of the best-known species belonging to this
sub -family is —

The Gigantic King-fisher (D(tcelo* (jigas). This remark-
able bird is not uncommon among the wooded mountain
districts m many parts of the Australian continent, where
it may frequently be observed sitting in solitary state

--i^^fc^-^

'1

Fig, 120.— the lau&hing jackass.
(Dacelo gigas.)

watching for its prey. Unqualified for plunging into
water, the Dacelo is vigilant in pursuit of reptiles and
insects. Snakes are its favourite food, and it may be
often seen flying to a tree with one of these reptiles in its
beak, holdmg it just behind the head, and thus securing

* A fanciful name, made by transposing- the letters of the word
Alcedo.

292 SYNDACTYL.E.

immunity from its bite. Generally the snake is killed
before being carried away, but sometimes the bird is
observed to break the creature's head to pieces on a branch
by means of its powerful beak. Occasionally the Gigantic
Kingfisher will kill young chickens, and carry away eggs ;
but its services in destroying reptiles alnmdantly compen-
sate the settler for these petty depredations. The most
striking feature, however, in the history of the Dacelo is
its peculiar cry ; ever and anon it breaks out into a sin-
gular abrupt Icmgh, somewhat resembling the syllables
yah ! yah ! yah I commencing in a low, and gradually
rising to a high and loud tone, that is perfectly startling
when heard amidst the solitudes of the forest. From this
wild and discordant cry it has obtained from the colo-
nists the names of the " Laughing Jackass," " Feathered
Jackass," and " Laughing Kingfisher." The Laughing
Kingfisher, or " Settler's Clock," as it is sometimes called
by the colonists, was for many years a doomed bird in
Australia, merely from ignorance of its natural habits ;
for having been seen occasionally to pounce ujDon and
devour a chicken in the absence of its usual sujijply of
snakes or mice, it was regarded as one of the destroyers
of the poultry-yard ; and from the general destruction of
these birds tliat was instituted, a corresponding increase
of rej^tiles and vermin of all kinds was experienced on
every farm. Its utility being better understood, it is
now seldom or never molested ; its peculiar laugh and
singular scream are again heard, and the "Settler's
clocks " set a-going again, prove a benefit to the com-
munity, and have even become useful domesticated ani-
mals ; they have, indeed, very much the habits of birds
of prey, and, when kept as pets about a house or garden,
will watch for small game like a cat. It is very common
to see ten or twelve of these birds perched upon the
branch of a large gum-tree {Eucalyptus), and on the tra-
veller trying to imitate theii- peculiar note, instead of
flying away, one of the party will set up its laugh ; this
is immediately followed by a second ; a third will then
take up the cry, and bark away until they all chime in
with a most extraordinary compound of noises.

The typical form of this sub-family is —

Lindsay's Halcyon {Halcyon Lindsay i), of which, how-
ever, little is known but the skin.

ALCEDINIDiE.

:93

SVB-FAMILY III.
Alcedixix.e. The Kingfishers iwoper.

Gen. Charac. — Bill more or less long, straight, and slender, vritli the cuknen
sloping to the tip, which is acute, the sides much compressed, and the gouys
long and ascending.

f

X

Fig. 121.— the coiiMox kingfisher.
(Alcedo Ispida.)

The race of the true Kingfishers is distributed
over most parts of the world. They frequent the
banks of rivers^ and are usually seen perched solita-
rily upon a branch that overhangs the stream, or
flying near the surface of the water in quest of their
prey, which consists principally of fish. They may
sometimes be observed fluttering over the stream,
and then suddenly precipitating themselves upon

294 SYNDACTYL.E.

some poor minnow that happens to come into their
vicinity.

The type of this sub -family is —

The Common Kingfisher (Alcedo Ispida), the only
European I'cpresentative of the group. It is one of the
most beautiful of our British birds, and its appearance
as it dashes along in the sunsliine is extremely brilliant.
It is an inhabitant of all parts of Europe except the
extreme north, and is also widely spread over Asia and
Africa. This species is always found in the vicinity of
water, over which it may be seen shooting along like a
little meteor. Its food consists not only of small fishes,
but also of acpiatic insects and leeches.

The appetite of the Kingfisher is voracious, and his
manners shy and retiring ; dwelling near lonely and seques-
tered brooks and rivers, he sits for hours together, motion-
less and solitary, on some bough overhanging the stream,
jijatiently watching the motion of the smaller fishes which
constitute his food, waiting for a fitvourable moment to
dart with the velocity of an arrow upon the first that
comes near enough to the surface, and seldom failing in
his aim. He then returns to his former station on some
large stone or branch, where he kills his captive by shift-
ing its position in his bill, so as to grasp it firmly near
the tail, and striking its head smartly against the object
on which he rests ; he then revei-ses its position and
swallows it, head foremost : the indigestible parts are
afterwards ejected in a manner analogous to that of Owls
and other birds of prey. The Kingfisher, however, does
not confine himself to this mode of watching in motion-
less solitude ; but should the stream be broad, or no
favourable station for espionage present itself, he may be
seen poising himself over it at an altitude of ten or fitteen
feet, scrutinizing the element below for his food, and
phuiging upon it with a velocity which often carries him
considerably below the surface. For these habits his
muscular wedge-shaped body, increasing gradually from a
long pointed bill, and his sleek plumage, which, while it
passes freely through the water, is impervious to wet,
seem expressly to adapt him ; and his wings are short
but powerful : hence his flight is smooth, even, and ex-
ceedingly ra})id. Silent, except during the pairing and

ALCEDINID.E. 295

])reeding season, when he occasionally uttere a shaii)
pierciug cry, indicative perhaps of attachment, and equally
solitary and unsocial in his habits, the Kingfisher dwells
alone, seldom consorting with others, or even with his
mate except during the rearing of the young, when both
sexes discharge with assiduity the duty of procuring
requisite suj^plies of food. The places selected for incu-
bation are steep and secluded banks overhanging ponds
and rivers, where in a hole, generally at a considerable dis-
tance above the surface of the water, and extending to
the dei)th of two or three feet into the bank, the female,
without making a nest, lays five or six eggs, of a beau-
tiful pinky white. As soon as the young are hatched,
the parent birds may be seen incessantly passing to and
from the hole with food, the ejected remains of which in
;t short time accumulate around the unfledged ]:)rood.
The young do not leave the hole until fully fledged, when,
seated on some neighbouring branch, they may be known
by their clamorous twittering as they greet their parents,
from whom they impatiently expect supplies of food.
Jn a short time, however, they commence flashing for
themselves, assuming at that early age a plumage nearly
resembling the adult. The young appear to possess
habits of partial migration, at least in our own island ;
they wander from the iuterior of the country along the
I'ivers to the coast, and in the autumnal and winter
months frequent the mouths of small rivulets and dykes
near the sea.

296

SYNDACTYL.E.

SUB-FAMILY IV.

Galbulin^e.

The Jacamars.

Gen. Charac. — Bill long, slender, straight, or slightly curved and acute ; tail
long and graduated ; tarsi short ; toes either arranged in two pairs or two
toes in front and one behind, the anterior toes united.

Fig. 122.— the eed-tailed jacamae.
{Galhula rnjicauda,)

These birds^ remarkable for tkeir brilliant plumage,
inhabit the tropical parts of the Western hemisphere.
They are met with most numerously in Brazil and
Guiana, where they live in the penetralia of the
forest, and pass their lives in solitude. They are
all of moderate size, and feed entirely upon insects.

ALCED1NID.E. 297

which they pursue by short and rapid flights. Their
eggs are deposited in hollow trees.

The typical species^ —

The Red-tailed Jacamar (Galhula rujicauda), inha-
bits South America, frequenting trees in damp and
shady places. They generally sit on the low naked
branches m the forests, from which they dart upon
butterflies, spearing them with their long bills ; tlieir
haunts, indeed, may frequently be discovered by the
ground being strewn with the beautiful wings of their
victims.

" A bird called Jacamar," says Mr. Waterton, " is often
mistaken for a kingfisher, but it has no relationship (in
its habits) with that tribe ; it frequently sits on the
trees overhanging tlie water, and as its beak bears some
resemblance to that of a kingfisher, this may probably
account for its being taken for one. It feeds entirely
upon insects, sits on a branch in motionless expectation,
and as soon as a fly, butterfiy, or moth passes by, it darts
at it, and returns to the branch it had just left. It seems
an indolent, sedentary bird, shiinniug the society of all
others. It never visits cultivated grounds, but remains
all the year round in the woods. There are four species
of Jacamar in Demerara ; they are all beautiful, the
largest superb. Its plumage is of so fine a changing blue
and golden-green, that it may take rank with tlie choicest
of the Humming-birds."

298

SYNDACTYLY.

FAMILY Y.

BUCEROTID.E.'"' t

TJte Hornhills.

Gen. Chakac. — Bill more or less lengthened, curved, broad at the base and
compressed to the end, with the culmen furnished with a singularly-formed
helmet, or only curved to the tip, which is acute ; the nostrils basal, and
usually rounded ; the wings moderate ; the tail generally long, broad, and
more or less graduated ; the tarsi, in most, short and strong ; the toes
moderate, strong, and more or less united at their base, especially the outer
one ; the claws short and rather obtuse.

^^

Fig. 123. — the cresteb hornbill.
(Buceros cororuttiDs.)

The birds of tliis family are at once distinguished
by the great size of their bills, which are often so

* (iovq, bous, an ot ; Kipctg, keras, a horn ; So called because the
bill somewhat resembles the horn of an ox.

t In the Tabular View this family is placed with the Coni-

ROSTRES.

BUCEROTID^. 299

enormous as to appear almost a deformity ; whilst
iu many species tlie disproportion of tliis part to the
rest of the body is increased by the presence of a
singular helmet-like swelling at the base. The bill,
with this appendage, looks like a ponderous and un-
wieldy burden for the slender neck of tlie bird ; but
the whole structure is composed of very light mate-
rials, a thin outer case supported by an interlacing
bony network filled with air, and so tender is the
helmet-like protuberance in some species, that after
the deatk of the bird, pressure with the thumb and
linger is often sufficient to crush it. This remarkable
beak is long, curved, and pointed, with the margins
of the upper mandible often irregularly toothed, as
if small fragments had been hacked out. The ante-
rior toes of the stout powerful feet are more or less
united together, the outer one, especially, being-
attached to its neighbour to such an extent as to
lead Cuvier to place the Hornbills with the King-
fishers and Bee-eaters in his group of Syndactyle
birds. These birds have tolerably large wings, and
possess considerable powers of flight.

The only sub -family, —

BucEROTix.E, The Hornbills loroper,

have the characters given above.

These birds are inhabitants of the warmer parts
of the Old World, most of the species being found
in the Eastern islands and in Africa. They are gene-
rally of large size. In a state of nature their food
consists principally of fruits, but they are said by
some T\Titers to feast upon carrion ; and specimens
in confinement have been seen to capture rats and
mice, which they swallow whole, after crushing them
a little with their enormous mandibles. They pro-
bably feed on almost anything that comes in their
way. Lesson thinks that the eastern species are
very fond of nutmegs, from which their flesh derives
a delicious flavom\ They usually live in flocks in

300 SYNDACTYLY.

the forests^ where they perch upon the highest
branches. During flighty their head is dra^vn back,
and the movement of their ^vings is very rapid, pro-
ducing a considerable rushing sound as the birds
pass through the air. This is heightened by a
constant clattering of their large mandibles, and
the occasional utterance of a loud croak. In fact,
according to Lesson, the noise produced by a flock
of Hornbills when passing along in the air is very
alarming to those who are unaware of its origin, for
it has no distant resemblance to one of those sudden
and violent winds which often come on unexpectedly
in tropical climates. " Their voice is composed
of the transient blast of a bugle and the sudden
hiss of an exploding sky-rocket ; they seem to
utter these, calls periodically, without any obvious
reason, as if to relieve the monotony of their still
and melancholy lives. •'^ An Abyssinian species is re-
ported by Major Denham to live upon insects, fish,
and serpents, to the latter of which it is directed by
a special instinct. " It discovers their ^acinity while
they are yet under ground, digs on the spot, destroys
the nest, and feeds on the venomous inhabitant and
its eggs." The Hornbill makes its nest in the hole
of some decaying tree, plastering up the entrance
with mud, so as to leave a very small aperture. The
following account of the nest of the Red-breasted
Hornbill is given by Dr. Livingstone : — '' The first
time that I saw this bird was at Kolobeng, where I
had gone to the forest for some timber. Standing
by a tree, a native looked behind me, and exclaimed,
^ There is the nest of a Korwe.'' I saw a slit, only
about half an inch wide and three or four inches
long in a slight hollow of the tree. Thinking the
word ^ Korwe ' denoted some small animal, I waited
with interest to see what he would extract. He broke
the clay which surrounded the slit, put his arm into
the hole, and brought out a Tockas or Red-breasted
Hornbill, which he killed. He informed me that
when the female enters her nest she submits to real

bucerotid.t:.

301

confinement; tlie male plasters up tlie entrance,
leaving only a narrow slit by whicli to feed his mate,
and Avhicli exactly suits tlie form of Ms beak. The
female makes a nest of her OAvn feathers, lays her
eggs, hatches them, and remains with the young till
they are fully fledged. During- all this time, which
is stated to be two or three months, the male con-
tinues to feed her and the young family. The
prisoner generally becomes fat, and is esteemed a
very dainty morsel by the natives, while the poor
slave of a husband gets so lean, that on the sudden
lowering of the temperature which sometimes
happens after a fall of rain, he is benumbed, falls
down, and dies."

The t^'pe of this sub -family is —

The Crested Hornhill (Buceros coronatus), delineated
in the figure given above.

302 SCANSOEES.

ORDER III.

vScANSORES.

The Scansorialor Climbing* Birds are distinguished
by tlie structure of their feet. The outer toe is
turned backward^ so that the foot exhibits two toes
in front and two behind.* This is really the only
character common to all the birds placed in the
order Scansores ; the structure of the other parts
from which distinctive characters are usually derived
varying greatly in different members of the group,
so that it includes species of very different aspects
and modes of life. It will, moreover, be observed
that in many of the Passerine birds, the outer toe,
although not permanently reversed, is capable of
assuming the Scansorial character, adding not a
little to the difficulty of drawing a clear line of
demarcation between the two orders.

The structure of their feet enables most of the
Scansorial birds to cling with great tenacity to the
branches and trunks of trees, and to climb up the
steepest surface. Few of them are possessed of
great powers of flight ; they spend most of their life
among trees, and find on them their favourite food.
In some of the families this consists of berries and
other fruits ; in others almost exclusively of insects
and grubs. Most of them rear their young in the
holes of rotting timber, simply depositing their eggs
among the debris of the wood, without any nest.
The Scansores are divisible into four families, of
which the Toucan, the Parrot, the Woodpecker, and
the Cuckoo are familiar examples.

* See " Animal Creation," page 437.

KAMPHASTID.E.

30:3

FAMILY I.

Ramphastid.e.

The Toucans.

Gen. Chakac. —Bill much prolonged, broad at the base, -vdth the culmen
curved, the sides compressed to the tip, and the lateral margins more or
less serrated.

Fig. 124. — the bed-beaked TorcAif.
( Ea mpli astos eryth rorhy n ch us.)

The Toucans are remarkable for the great develop-
ment of their bill, which is sometimes nearly as large
as the bird itself. The general form of the beak is
* pampa^ofiai, ramphazomai, to have a beak.

p 2

304 SCANSOEES.

very similar to that prevailing in tlie Hornbills^ but
usually less tapering towards its extremity. It is
also destitute of those remarkable protuberances
which give some of the Hornbills such a singular
aspect. As in the Hornbilb however, the substance
of the beak is cellular or spongy ; so that, notwith-
standing its apparently unwieldy bulk, it is too light
to present any obstacle to the tolerably active
movements of its possessor. The margins of both
mandibles are denticulated throughout their length,
and the curved tip of the bill is ordinarily sharp.
The tongue in these birds is even more remarkable
than the bill, being shaped exactly like a feather.
A strong cartilaginous stalk runs up the centre,
bordered on each side with long and slender barbs,
placed close together, and increasing in length as
they approach the extremity of this singular tongue.
The Indians of South America attribute extraordinary
virtues to this feather-like organ, and employ it as a
remedy in various diseases. The tarsi are short, but
terminated by long and powerful toes ; and the pro-
portions of the legs and feet adapt the Toucans but
badly for moving on the ground, where they cannot
walk, but hop along with a very awkward gait. The
Toucans are exclusively inhabitants of the warmer
regions of South America, where they abound in
many parts of the forests. They are usually seen in
small flocks, hopping from branch to branch of the
highest trees. They are shy and cautious in their
habits, and feed principally upon fruits, especially
bananas, which they swallow whole. They do not
migrate, but wander about, making their appearance
in greater numbers in certain districts where some
favourite food happens to be ripe. Fruits, however,
are not their only diet ; they feed freely upon animal
substances, killing and devouring small birds and
reptiles, plundering the nests of other birds of their
eggs, and even occasionally making a meal upon
fish, worms, and the larvae of insects.

Even when in motion among the branches of the

EAMPHASTID^. 305

treeSj the large beaks of tlie Toucans give them a
certain air of gravity ; but this is vastly increased by
the attitude they assume in repose. When they
perch quietly, they puff out their plumage until they
look like a round ball of feathers ; at the same time
the tail is thrown up over the back, the head is re-
tracted, and the enormous bill laid sometimes on one
side, sometimes on the other, or moved from side to
side, and raised and depressed in a manner re-
sembling so much the gesticulations of an orator
addressing a numerous assembly, that, coupled with
the serious aspect of the birds, it has obtained for
them, from the French Creoles in Guiana, the name
of oiseaux 'precJteurs, or preaching birds. They breed
in the holes of trees, usually taking possession of
such as have been enlarged by the Woodpeckers.
Here they lay two eggs of a white colour and round-
ish form. Toucans occur in vast numbers through-
out the forests along the course of the Amazon.
When they alight, and begin climbing the trees, one
of them acts the part of a sentinel, uttering a loud cry
of tiLcdno, from which their name is derived. When
the whole flock raise their loud and not over-
melodious voices in concert, they produce a harsh
scream that may be heard at the distance of a mile.
Mr. Edwards tells us that these birds, when tamed,
may be taught as many tricks as a parrot, but they
are destitute of the faculty of speech.

The t}^e of this family is —

The Beauharnais, or Curl-crested Toucan {Pteroglossus
Beauha rnaisii).

:306 SCA'N SORES.

FAMILY II.

PsiTTACiD.E. The Parrots.

Gen. Chakac. — Bill more or less large and strong, witli the culmen arched
to the tip, which is prolonged and acute, the lateral margins sometimes
dentated, and the base covered by a cere, of greater or less size, in which
the nostrils are placed ; the wings and the tail generally long ; and the tarsi
nsually very short and robust.

The feet of the Parrots are furnished with two
toes pointing forward and two backward, and, in
most of the genera, are expressly formed for firm
prehension and climbing, evidently indicating that
woods and trees are the appropriate and natural
habitat of the race. It is accordingly in those
regions where the trees are clothed with perpetual
verdure, and where a constant and never-failing
succession of fruits and seeds can always be procured,
that the Parrots are found in the greatest numbers.
Thus the recesses of the interminable forests of
vSouth America are enlivened by the presence of the
superb Macaws ; those of India and its islands by
the elegantly-shaped and scarlet-clothed Lories ;
while those of Australia resound with the harsh
voice of the Cockatoos, and the shriller screams of
the long-tailed Parrakeets. In these, their natural
situations, their movements are marked by an ease
and gracefulness we can never see exhibited in a
state of confinement. They are represented as
climbing about the branches in every direction, and
as suspending themselves from them in every possible
attitude, in all which movements they are greatly
assisted by their hooked and powerful bill, which is
used both as an organ of prehension and for support.
The pointed and ample wing, which prevails among
the Parrots, indicates a corresponding power of
flight ; and, accordingly, we learn from those who
have enjoyed the enviable opportunity of seeing and
studying them in their native wilds, that it is rapid,

PSITTACID.E. 307

elegant, and vigorous, capable of being long sus-
tained, and tliat many of tlie s^^ecies are in the habit
of describing circles and other aerial evolutions,
previous to their alighting upon the trees which
afford them food. Many of the species are grega-
rious, and, except during the breeding season, are
always seen in numerous bodies. Others, as the
Black Cockatoos, are met \\4th only in pairs or
families. The places selected for hatching and
rearing their young are the hollows of decayed
trees : they make little or no nest, but deposit their
eggs, which, according to the species, vary from two
to six in number, upon the bare rotten wood. In
these hollows they frequently roost for the night.
The natural cry of the tribe consists entirely of
hoarse, shrill, and piercing screams frequently re-
iterated; some species possess the power of imitating
the human voice and learning to articulate a variety
of words and sentences; but this faculty seems to be
principally confined to the short and even-tailed
parrots, in which the tongue is large, broad, and
fleshy at the tip. These birds are tender and well-
flavoured, and are frequently used as food in the
districts they inhabit.

To this family belong the Ground-Parrots, the
]\Iacaws, the Lories, the true Parrots, and the
Cockatoos.

308

SCAN so RES.

SUB-FAMILY I.
Pezoporin.'E." The Ground-Parrots.

Gen. Charac. — Bill moderate, with the eulmen usually rounded and arched
to the tip, which is sometimes dentated ; the tarsi more or less short and
robust ; and the tail broad, lengthened, and more or less graduated, with
the ends of the feathers narrowed, and rounded or pointed.

Fig. li;5 — tuk hokixed ground-parrot.

(Plufijcercus cornutus.)

* TTf^o-TTopor, pezo-poros, a pedestrian, one ivho goes over the
gmnal on foot.

PS1TTACID.E, 309

Tlie birds composing tliis sub -family are mostly
found in Australia^ wliere they inliabit shrubby or
bushy places^ and are usually seen on the ground
searching for the seeds of the grasses on which they
subsist. When disturbed^ tliey generally seek safety
by a rapid flight, continued for a short distance, to
the nearest trees, where they remain perched till
the cause of their alarm has disappeared. Some
species, met with most numerously in India, fre-
quent the jungles and are often to be seen on culti-
vated ground and in gardens, where they commit
great devastation, devouring various kinds of grain
and fruits. During their migrations they generally
keep close to the tops of the large trees, and on
discovering food, take a short circle round the tree
with a steady sailing flight, and, alighting on the
branches, speedily commence their attack on the
fruit.

A well-known species is —

The Beautiful Ground-Parrot {Pezoporas forjuosus). It
is never seen to fly into a tree, or to take shelter among
the branches, so tJiat it is uncertain whether it possesses
the power of perching. It usually frequents sandy sterile
districts covered with tufts of rank grass and herbage, or
low swampy flats abounding with rushes, where, from its
very restless habits and great powers of running, it is
seldom seen until it is flushed, and then only for a short
time, as it soon alights and runs off to a place of seclusion,
often under the cover of the Grass-tree {^Xanthorrhcaa),
that abounds in tlie districts it frequents. It flies near
the ground with great rapidity, often making several
zigzag turns in the short distance of a hundred yards,
beyond which it seldom passes without resting on the
ground. Its flesh is excellent, being much more delicate
than that of the Snipe, and equalling, if not surpassing,
in flavour that of the Quail. ] ts white eggs are deposited
on the ground. This species is met with both in Aus-
tralia and Yan Diemen's Land.

The typical form is —

The Horned Ground-Parrot (Platycercus cornutm), of
which a flgure is ui\'en above
p '6

310

SCANSORES.

Arain.k.

SUBFAMILY I J.

The Macaws.

Gex. Chabac. — Bill larf»e, the culnien of the upper maiidi)>le much arehed to
the tip, which is prolonged and acute, the lower mandible deeper than long,
and rather broader at the base than the upper, with the gonys advancing
upwards and rounded ; the tail lengthened, graduated, and the tip of each
feather narrowed.

:5.5es-^

Fig. 126.— the blue and yellow macaw.
(Aru car idea )

The Macaws are natives of tlie wanner regions of
Soutli America and the West Indies, and are amongst

PSITTACID.E. 311

the largest of the Parrot race. They are easily do-
mesticated^ and become very familiar^ but in their
powers of imitation they fall very far short of the
true Parrots. Their natural cries are harsh^ dis-
cordant^ and piercing ; and the few words they are
occasionally taught to utter are pronounced in a
disagreeable tone. Their beak is of enormous size
and strength, and their j^l^i^iage remarkable for
gaudy colouring. They perch on the highest part
of lofty trees, preferring those that border the forests,
and yet seldom show themselves at the extremity of
the branches. They are generally seen in pairs,
but sometimes in parties of six or eight together.
When disturbed they shake themselves, and utter a
scream, which is piercing', strong, and disagreeable.
They are rarely noticed on the ground, but some-
times climb from branch to branch in quest of the
fruits of the forest trees, and also of the palms in
which they usually live. Their flight is horizontal,
and not very elevated. They build their nest in
hollow trees, or on large branches near the trunk,
and lay two eggs. These birds are distinguished
by the enormous size of their bills, of which the
upper mandible is so much curved as to describe
nearly a semicircle, and also by the naked skin,
furnished with only a few scattered and minute
feathers, which covers their cheeks. The natives of
South America give the general name of Ara, or
Aracara, to the Macaws, a denomination which is
evidently in imitation of their note.

The t}^e of this sub-family is —

The Blue and Yellow Macaw (Ara cceridea), figured in
the precedmg page.

;12

SCANSORES.

LORIN^.

SUB-FAMILY II T.

TJlq Lories.

Gen. Charac. — Bill large and slender, with the culmen curved to the tip,
which is prolonged and pointed, the lateral margin sometimes sinuated and
slightly notched, and the gonj's of the lower mandible lengthened and more
or less curved and advancing upwards.

Fig. 127. — the blue-striped loky.

(Eos cyanostriata.)

PSITTACID.^. 813

Several small species of Parrots wliicli inhabit tlie
Eastern Islands and Polynesia are commonly called
Lories. The characters upon which they are sepa-
rjited from the rest of the family^ consist principally
in the comparative weakness of the bill, and the
peculiar structure of the tongue, which, instead of
terminating in a soft fleshy cushion as in the true
Parrots, is furnished with elongated papillae, the
latter sometimes even forming a sort of brush at the
extremity of the organ. These birds live partly
upon pulpy fruits, and i^artly upon the sweet juices
of flowers : in collecting the latter, the papillae of the
tongue come into use. They are all remarkable for
their brilliant colours, and for the softness of their
plumage. They are lively, active birds, and do not
lose their gaiety even in captivity. They are held
in great estimation in many parts of the East.

The type of this sub -family is —

The Blue-striped Lory {Eos cyanostriata).

814

SCANSORES.

PSITTACIX.^^:.

SUJi-FAMILY IV.

21te True Parrots

Gen. Charac. — Bill more or less larj^o, broad at base, and the sides com-
pressed, with the culmeii much arched to the tip, which is acute and pro-
longed, the lateral marginsdentatedor festooned;, the nostrils basal, lateral,
and rounded ; the wings more or less long and pointed ; the tail usually
short and squared; the tarsi short and covered with small scales; the toes
moderate.

Fig. 128. — the august parrot.
{Fsiffacuii auffitsfug.)

The True Parrots are natives of the continent of
Africa, and of the warmer parts of South America.
They inhabit forests, and are found on clusters of
trees, especially those that grow in the neighbour-
hood of rivers ; to these they resort for protection
from the scorching heat of the sun, and as roosting-

PSITTACID.?:. 315

places during tlie niglit. On the first appearance
of dawn, these birds are in the habit of assembling
from their nocturnal retreats in vast flocks, and
perching on dead trees, where they may be observed
preening their feathers in the early rays of the sun,
as if to dry them from the dew of the night. They
then separate into small parties, and scatter them-
selves in search of their food, which consists chiefly
of various fruits : they sometimes commit great
destruction among the orange plantations. After
having satisfied their hunger, they invariably pro-
ceed to the banks of the rivers to bathe, until the
heat of the day drives them to seek the thick foliage
of the trees, where they enjoy the refreshing coolness
of the shade, and remain so quiet that their presence
is not discoverable. At any alarm, however, the
whole flock flies off" hastily, uttering loud discordant
screams, to another retreat. Towards evening they
leave the trees, for the purpose of obtaining their
second daily supply of food, after which all the flocks
reassemble with much noise, and again visit the
river to perform their second ablutions ; and before
going to rest, revisit the trees to preen and dry
their plumage by the last rays of the sun. This
completed', they separate and retire each to its own
peculiar roosting-place, until the dawn of day again
awakens them into active life. On the approach of
the rainy season, these birds migrate to the warmer
districts, and, during their migration, rise to so
great an elevation in the air, that they are not visible
to the naked eye, though their discordant notes are
distinctly heard. They seek the quiet solitudes of
the forests for rearing their young, and feed their
nestlings by disgorging into theii^ mouths half-mas-
ticated fruit, after the manner of Pigeons. The
female deposits from two to four eggs on the bare
wood in holes of trees.

The Ash-coloured, or Grey Parrot {P,sUtacus eri/thacus),
is one of the s])ecies most frequently kept in England, and
is familiar to all. It inhabits the woods of tropical Africa.

:J1()

SCANSORES.

SUB-FAMILY V

Cacatuin.e.

The Cockatoos.

Gex. Charac. — Bill fjencrall}" liirjje, of various leiif^ths, broad at the base,
more or less compressed on the sides, and the culmen usually much arched
to the tip, which is very acute ; the wings generally rather long and pointed ;
the tail more or less long, broad, and mostly even ; the tarsi short, robust,
and covered with small scales ; the toes unequal.

^- ^^J

■ W

Fici. ]

.9. — THE SriiPHLli CKESTEU COCKATOO.

( Cucaf.au xulpli urea.)

The Cockatoos are readily distinguislied from the
preceding Parrots by the presence of a large crest,
which the birds are able to elevate or depress at
pleasure. Their name is an imitation of the peculiar
cry of the species. These birds are found in the

PSITTACId]. 317

Molucca Islands and on the continent of Australia.
Some prefer the lofty trees that border large rivers^
and such as are located in swamps ; other species
frequent such as grow in the open plains and clear
lands. They are very shy, and it is therefore rather
difficult to get near them ; but though not usually
seen, their presence is easily discovered by their loud
screaming notes, the effect of which is much in-
creased by their vast numbers. They subsist entirely
on vegetable substances, such as hard seeds, nuts,
and small tuberous and bulbous roots, and they
generally swallow stones along with their food.
They commit great depredations in the fresh-culti-
vated lands, and on the smaller branches of trees,
by stripping off the bark, which they sometimes cut
into small pieces : the appearance of this work of
devastation generally indicates that their nest is in
a neighbouring tree.

ol8 SCANSOKES.

FAMILY III.

PiciD/E. TJce Woodjjeckers.

Gen. Charac— Bill generally lengthened, acute, and straight, with the base
more or less broad, and the sides much compressed towards the tip, which
is usually obtuse.

Tlie birds of this family liave a ratlier lon^^ straight
bill, of wliich the tip is commonly obtuse or trun-
cated, and tlie sides marked witli a longitudinal
ridge.* Their feet are organized for running upon
the bark of trees, being furnished with long spreading
toes, armed at the extremity with strong sharp
curved claws, which enable them readily to seize
any small inequality of the bark ; whilst the tarsus
is so placed as to form a sort of sole, which gives
the bird great firmness in its usual position. The
tail also is of service in climbing ; for this purpose
it is rather short, and composed of stiff feathers,
pointed at their extremities, which are generally
more or less worn away. These birds, especially
the more typical species (for some, as we shall see,
differ from the rest in their habits), reside in the
woods and forests of both hemispheres, principally
in the warmer regions. They run with great
activity and in every direction upon the trunks and
branches of trees, searching for the insects that con-
stitute the greater part of their food, and may be
constantly seen tapping the bark with their bills, in
order to discover soft or rotten places, such as are
usually inhabited by bark-feeding insects. On
meeting with a favourable spot, they immediately
dig vigorously into the bark, and seize the insects
or larvae concealed beneath. The capture of the
smaller insects is effected by means of their tongue,
which, with its appurtenances, exhibits a beautiful
structure. For the capture of the smaller insects,

* See " Animal Creation," page 439.

PIC ID J]. 319

whicli abound both under tbe bark and among the
crevices at its surface, the tongue is sharp, pointed,
barbed, and endued with a glutinous matter, fur-
nished by large glands situated in the throat, and
communicating" with the front of the mouth by two
long ducts ; so that the glutinous coating is renewed
every time the tongue is drawn within the bill. These
birds feed also upon fruits and seeds. The Wood-
peckers roost and breed in holes in trees, which they
are able to enlarge by means of their strong, sharp
beaks ; their only nest consists of the chips and
debris at the bottom of the excavation. Their eggs
are variable in number, smooth, shining, and of a
pure white colour.

This family embraces the Barbets, the Piculets,
the Woodpeckers proper, the Green AtV^oodpeckers,
the Black Woodpeckers, the Ground Woodpeckers,
and, the Wrvnecks.

fto<

SCAN SORES.

SUB-FAMILY I.

Capitonin.e.

The Barhets.

Gen. Charac. — Bill large, broad at the base, usually furnisbed with bristles
and compressed towards the tip; the tail generally short, even, and the
feathers rounded at the ends.

Fig. 130.— kichardso's barbet.
{Capifo Richardsoni.)

This sub-family embraces several genera^ some of
wliicli inhabit the forests of Africa^ where they live
upon insects and fruits. They select a hole in some
decaying tree^ in which the female deposits her eggs
on the bare wood. On quitting the nest^ the young
accompany their parents, and all live together in
perfect harmony. These bands are so devoid of
fear that it is easy to find the nest, it being only
necessary to follow the little family to the hole where
they reside, and to which they always retire to pass

picwjE. 321

the night. Others are extremely abundant in most
parts of the continent of India, where they seem to
prefer open spaces in the jungles, or wherever a few
trees are to be found upon which they can perch ;
or, being far from shy, they frequently approach
gardens and groves. Their food consists of various
fruits and insects, which they obtain whilst hopping
amongst the branches. When roosting singly on
the uppermost branch of a tree, they usually utter a
monotonous note, that lasts for ten minutes or more :
this note is very peculiar, and somewhat resembles
a distant hammering of metal. Some of them have
been observed picking holes in a horizontal rotten
branch, wherein they build their nest, precisely in
the manner of the Woodpeckers. Owing to the
shortness of their wings, their general proportions
are heavy, and their flight is low.

The type of the race is —

Richardson's Barbet {Capito Rlchardsoni).

99

.SCANSORES.

SUBFAMILY I J.

PiCUMNfX.E.

The riculets.

Gen. Chaeac— Bill short, straifj;ht, the sides compressed towards the tip,
which is rather acute ; the gonys of the lower mandible lengthened, and
advancing upwards ; and the tail short, with the tip of each feather broad
and round.

//;\'*<\ 0^

'^^tC/z/Ssiv//^^'

Fig. 131.— the pigmy pfcumnus.
{Picumniis 2^ijf/>ncBHi<.)

These little birds inhabit tlie forests of South
America and India. They are seen perched singly
or in pairs on small trees, firmly grasping them with
their toes. They possess the power of leaping from
one branch to another, but they do not usually
employ their tail in supporting themselves on the
trunks, as is the case with the true Woodpeckers.
They build their nest in rotten trunks of trees, in

PICID.E.

323

which the females deposit two eggs. In a few
Indian species_, the feet are furnished with only
three toes, two in front and one behind.

The type of this sub-family is —

The Pigmy Picumnus {Picumnus j^ygmccus), repre-
sented above.

11.' / 1r< /

324

SCANSOKES.

PlC'IX.^3.

SUB-FAMILY TIL

The True Woodpeckers.

Gex. Charac. — Bill more or less lonp, broad at the base, much compressed
towards the tip, which is truncated, the sides of the upper mandible sloping,
and furnished with a lateral ridge that springs from the middle at the base,
gradually bends towards the lateral margin, and then extends above it to
the tip ; the outer posterior toe generally longer than the outer anterior toe.

Fig. 132. — the great spotteb woodpecker,
{Picnx major.)

Tlie True Woodpeckers feed upon insects, wliicli
they capture in tlie woody structure and beneath the
bark of trees. Their large and strong toes arranged
in pairs give them great facility in maintaining their
footing on a perpendicular surface, a faculty which
is aided by their stiff and horny tail, composed of
strong feathers, ending in sharp points, which act
as a prop. Their beak is shaped like a wedge,

piciD^. 325

almost as strong and hard as steel, terminated by a
sharp, chisel-like extremity, wherewith, by repeated
blows, the bird strikes off the bark of trees, and
lays bare the insidious grubs beneath.

" All Woodpeckers are extremely expert at dis-
covering insects in their lurking-places. No sooner
have they alighted, than they stand for a few moments
motionless and listening. If no movement is heard
beneath the bark, the Woodpecker gives a smart
rap ^ath its bill, and bending its neck sideways,
lays its head close to the tree, when the least crawl-
ing motion of a beetle, or even of a larva, is instantly
discovered, and the bird forthwith removes the bark,
and continues to dig until it reaches its prey, when
it secures and swallows it. This mode of obtaining
food is obsei'ved particularly during the winter,
when few forest fruits are to be found. Woodpeckers
are, however, by no means restricted to insect diet ;
cherries, peaches, pears, apples, figs, mulberries, and
even peas, constitute a considerable part of their
nourishment. They likewise suck the eggs of small
birds, and thus sometimes commit serious depreda-
tions.''^ — Audubon.

The type of this sub-family is —

The Greater Spotted Woodpecker {Ficus major), deli-
neated above.

Q-

326

SCANSORES.

GEClNINyE.""

SUB-FAMILY IV.

The Green Woodpeckers.

Gen. Chakac. — Bill more or less long, strong, and straight, with the base
broad and the sides compressed towards the tip, which is truncated and
acute, the sides sloping, and furnished with a lateral ridge, which springs
from above the nostrils and runs along near the culmen towards the end of
the upper mandible for two-thirds of its length.

Fig. 133.— the green woodpecker.
{Geciniig viridis.)

These birds are found in most parts of the Old
World. They reside singly or in pairs in forests
and jungles.

The type of this sub-family, —

* yrj, ge, the earth; kiv^uj, kineo, to disturb ; So called because
it scratches up the earth in search of food.

piciDiE. , 327

The Green Woodpecker {Gednus viridis), is the most
common of our limited number of British Woodj)eckers ;
on tlie continent of Eiiroi)e it is widely distributed, inha-
biting forests and Avoody districts, where its loud cry may
be often heard though the bird itself remains unseen. In
some of its habits this species differs from the Wood-
peckers generally, especially in the circumstance of its
often leaving the trunks of trees and descending to the
gi-ound, where it searches for ants' nests, being extremely
partial to those insects and their lar\'?e, picking them up
very dexterously by means of its long tongue. It must
not be supposed, however, that these birds seek their food
wholly on the ground ; they search for insects mider the
bai'k of trees, or in the decaying wood, which they easily
shiver by blows of their strong wedge-shaped bills. They
scale the trunks of trees with great rapidity, climbing
either straight up or in a sj)iral dii-ection, but they descend
tail foremost, moving as it were backwards. Their flight
is rapid and undulating, and in fl^^ng from trunk to
trunk, if the trees are not far from each other, they take
only a single sweep. These Woodpeckers make their
nests in hollow trees ; or, if they meet with no natural
hole fit for their purpose, they excavate one with theii'
bills. In the performance of this duty the male and
female labour by turns, hammering away with wonderful
assiduity, theii- bills, while they are at work, going so
fast that the strokes cannot be counted, either by the eye
01- the ear.

Q 2

:^28

SCA-NSORES.

SUB-FAMILY V.
Melanerpix.e.'^ The Black Woodpeckers.

G-Eif. Charac. — I3ill more or less lonjj, compressed, and the lateral ridge
placed nearly hall-way between the culmen and lateral margin.

Fig. 134. — the busty melanerpes.
(Melanerpes rubiginosus.)

These birds are found botli in Nortli and South
America. They are seen in the woods^ the orchards,
and even on the fences in the neighbourhood of
houses. Their chief food consists of insects, but
they commit great devastation on fruits, berries, and
Indian corn, and are said to enter dovecots for the

* fxtXag, fiiXavog, melas, melanos, black ; tpTrw, herpo, to creep.

PICID.E.

329

purpose of sucking tlie eggs of pigeons. Their
note is lively, and so much resembles that of a
species of tree-frog which frequents the same places,
that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish the one
from the other. They migrate during the night
from north to south, flying high up in the air, and
far apart, propelling themselves by flaps of their
wings repeated at the end of each successive curve
as they rise and sink in their flight. At the dawn of
day they alight on the tops of dead trees about the
plantations, and remain searching for food until the
approach of sunset, when they again, one after the
other, mount into the air and continue their journey.
The nest is formed in the trunk or large branches
of a tree. The female deposits six eggs, generally
on the bare wood.

The type of this sub-family is —

The Rusty Melanerpes {Melaneiyes rubiginosus).

mo

SCANSORES.

COLAPTIX.E.

Srn-FAMILY VI.

The Ground Woodpeckers.

Gen. Charac. — Bill broad at the base, and the sides compressed to the end,
with the culmen much curved to the tip, which is acute, the sides of the
upper mandible sloping, and the lateral ridge scarcely visible or entirely
wanting.

Fig. 135. — the golden-winged woodpecker.
( Colaptex (I urutiig. )

The denomination of Cuckoo-Woodpeckers would
not be inappropriate to tlie members of this sub-
family, seeing that in their structure the characters
of both these birds seem to be combined. They
have, in fact, the tail-feathers of the Woodpecker,

* KoXairTuj, colapto, to -peclc tcith the hill.

piciD^. 331

and a rounded, sliglitly-arclied, and pointed beak,
resembling that of tlie Cuckoos. They differ
from the preceding Woodpeckers in having their
tongues much less extensible, and also, in many of
their habits. They are very generally seen upon
the ground, and do not climb trees, although they
sometimes cling to their trunks by means of their
claws, but without changing their position ; never-
theless, they perch readily upon the branches, and
leap with facility from one twig to another ; indeed
they may sometimes be seen upon tall shrubs, upon
the berries of which they feed with avidity, notwith-
standing that insects and worms constitute their
principal diet. They usually frequent coppices ; they
will approach villag*es during .the winter, but in the
spring they withdraw into the forests, where they
avail themselves of the holes of other Woodpeckers
in which to build theii' nests, seeing that they are
without the means of excavating them for themselves.

These birds are found in North and South
America, the West Indies, and South Africa. They
may be seen on the ground, examining the manure
of cattle for insects, or turning over the hillocks of
ants, which yield their favourite food. Occasionally
they frequent trees for ants that make their nests in
them, and penetrate decayed or dead branches in
search of wood-lice and the larv^ of insects. They
live likewise on fruits, seeds, and grains. Their
flight is strong and prolonged. They propel them-
selves by numerous beats of the wings, with short
intervals of sailing, during which they generally
keep in a straight line. The nature of their chief
food causes them to migrate from place to place.
The female lays six eggs, which she deposits in the
hole of a tree, on chips and dust of wood. The
young soon leave the nest, and are enticed by the
parents to the highest branches, where they are
assiduously fed.

The type of this sub-family is —

The Golden-winged Woodpecker {Cola^otes auratus).

332 SCANSORES.

SUB-FAMILY VII.
YuNCiN^. The Wrynecks.

Gen. Chaeac. — Bill short, straight, with the tip acute ; the wings moderate
and pointed ; the tail moderate, rounded, and composed of soft and flexible
feathers ; the tarsi short ; and the toes moderate.

Fig. 136. — the wryneck.
(Yunx torquilla.)

These birds are found in Europe^ India, and
Africa. In tliis country they make tlieir appearance
at the same time as the ants upon which they chiefly
live. They obtain their favourite food by removing
the earth with their bill, and then insertino- their
long, extensile, and glutinous tongue, to which the
insects adhere. They are rarely seen on trees, as

PICID.E. ' 333

their soft tail is not strong enougli to support tliem
in climbing, altliougli tliey make tlieir nests in
lioles in an old tree trunk.

The type of tliis sub -family —

The Wryneck ( Yicnx torquilla), a pretty little bird,
about the size of a lark, is a summer visitor to our island ;
but though common in the southern and eastern counties,
it is very rare in the north and west ; and in Ireland, we
believe, it is never seen. It arrives in this country in
April, a few days before the appearance of the Cuckoo ;
and its loud cry of peep I 2)^^P • V^^V • monotonously
repeated, is first heard when the leaves of the elm-tree
are as large as a silver sixpence. Groves, orchards, and
woods are the favourite resorts of the Wryneck, as also
the lines of tall beech-trees along hedge-rows. Ants are its
favourite food, and in search of them it traverses the
trunks of trees, examining every crevice, and picking
them up by means of its long worm-like tongue. In search
of its insect prey it also visits the ground, where it hops
and walks with considerable facility, searcliing for the nests
of ants ; and it is astonishing to see with what rapidity
it devours its tiny victims, launching its long tongue at
them, and withdrawing it so rapidly that the eye can
scarcely follow its movements. Col. Montague informs
us, that having captured a female Wryneck, which he con-
fined for some days in a cage, he was enabled to watch
its manners very minutely. "A quantity of mould with
emmets and their eggs was given to it, and it was curious
to see how the tongue was darted forth and retracted
with such velocity, and such unerring aim, that it never
rc^turned without an ant or an *d^^^ adhering to it, — not
transferred by the horny point, as some have imagined,
but retained by a peculiar tenacious moisture provided
for the purpose. While feeding, the body is motionless,
the head only is turned to every side, and the motion of
the tongue is so rapid that an ant's ^gg^ which is of a light
colour, and more conspicuous than the tongue, has some-
what the appearance of moving to the mouth by attrac-
tion, as a needle flies to a magnet. The bill is rarely
used, except to remove the mould in order to get more
readily at these insects. Where the earth is hollow, the
tongue is thrust into all the cavities to arouse the ants,
Q 3

3U

SCANSORES.

and for this purpose the horny appendage at its extremity
is exceedingly serviceable."

The Wryneck breeds in the holes of decayed trees, but
does not excavate a chamber like the Woodpecker, tlie
strength of the beak being very inadequate for that })ur-
pose. The eggs, nine or ten in number, are laid upon
the bare wood ; they are of a pure transparent white
colour. When surprised upon her eggs, the Wryneck
defends herself with great spirit, erecting the feathers at
the top of her head, and hissing like a snake.

In provincial language, this bird is sometimes called the
" Long-tongue," and " Emmet-hunter." The name Wry-
neck is given to it from its singular habit of twisting and
writhing its neck with odd contortions when alarmed or
irritated.

CUCULID.l^:.

FAMILY lY.

CucuLiD^. The Cuckoos.

Gejt. Chakac. — Bill of various lengths, generally slender, and more or less
compressed on the sides, the cuhnen curved to the tip, which is more or less
emarginated; the nostrils lateral, and placed in a membranous groove ; the
wings long and generally pointed ; the tail lengthened and rounded ; the
tarsi more or less long, and covered with broad transverse scales ; the toes;
long and unequal ; the claws moderate, and more or less curved.

The Cuckoos have feet somewhat resembling
those of the Parrots, but there is no breadth of sole;
the tarsus is much more lengthened, and the toes,
instead of being thick and strong, are slender and
weak. These birds never climb, but as they sit
much, and often for a long time, upon branches, it
is necessary that their feet should be of such a form
as to enable them to maintain an equal hold on all
sides.

The members of this family occur in both hemi-
spheres, and, indeed, in most parts of the world.
They are especially abundant in warm climates, and
those which are met with in cold or temperate
countries are generally only summer visitors. They
all feed principally upon insects. In their breeding
habits they exhibit a remarkable dissimilarity ;
for whilst many species build a nest and bring up
their progeny, others, amongst which are our own
Cuckoos, make over the labour of incubation and
the care of rearing their young to other birds, in
whose nests they deposit their eggs. With certain
exceptions, the Cuculidae have long and pointed
wings, and are distinguished by great powers of
flight.

This family comprehends the Indicators, the Rain
Cuckoos, the Ground Cuckoos, the Anis, and the
Cuckoos properly so called.

336

SCANSORES.

SUB-FAMILY L
Indicatorin^. The Indicators, or Iloney-yuides.

Gen. Charac— Bill short, broad at the base, with the culmen curved, and the
sides compressed to the tip, which is entire ; the nostrils lateral and placed
near the culmen in a membranous groove ; the wings long and pointed ; the
tail moderate and emarginated ; the tarsi very short, and covered with trans-
verse broad scales ; the toes unequal, and the outer anterior toe the longest ;
the claws moderate and strong.

Jig. 137.— the spotted honey-guide.
{Indicator macnlatus.)

These birds inliabit tlie wooded districts of Africa,
the forests of India, and the island of Borneo ; they
are usually found in pairs near the nests of wild
bees, which are located in the trunks of trees. The
honey stored up in these nests constitutes their
chief food, and they often pay dearly for their

cucuLiD^. 337

dainty fare^ being sometimes found in the liives
stung to deatli. In such a case, the bees cover the
body ^dth a vault of wax, that they may not be in-
commoded by its presence. Their flight is heavy _,
and continued only for a short distance at a time ;
but they run upon the trunks and branches of trees
with great facilit}^, in the manner of the Wood-
peckers. From the observations of M. Verreux, it
would appear that they have the parasitic habits of
the common Cuckoo, introducing their eggs into the
nests of Woodpeckers, and sometimes into those of
Orioles. The most celebrated species, —

The Wliite-beaked Honey-guide (Indicator alhiros-
tris), is so called because it is said to serve as a guide
to the inhabitants of the districts it frequents in their
search for honey. We are told that this bird, finding it
rather a matter of difficulty to obtain the honey, of which
it is extremely fond, has theremarkableinstinct of calling
Man to its assistance, and indicating the whereabouts of
the nests of the bees by constantly repeating a sharp and
peculiar cry, which, according to sonie travellers, may be
compared to the words ivicki, wicki, which m the lan-
guage of the Hottentots means honey. In the deserts of
Africa this cry may be heard in the morning and evening,
and is eagerly watched for by the natives, who imme-
diately reply to it in a graver tone, and hasten in the
direction indicated. As soon as the bird perceives them
commg, it places itself upon the tree in which a hive is
concealed, and should the honey-seekers not advance
quickly enough, flies to them, and by repeatedly going
backwards and forwards, shows them in an unmistake-
able manner the position of the coveted treasure. Whilst
the human marauders are rifling the contents of the hive,
the Indicator remains perched in the vicinity, patiently
waiting for the share of spoil which the Hottentots never
fjiil to leave for its gratification. This strange instinct of
the Honey -guide, we are told, is of essential service to
the poor Africans, and they regard with no good \vill any
person who kills one of these birds.

The type of this sub-family is —

The Spotted Indicator {Indicator maculatus) .

338

SCANSORES.

SUB-FAMILY

Saurotherin.e."'

TJie Rain Cuckoos.

Gkn. Charac. — Bill long, with the culmen nearly straight towards the tip,
which is suddenly curved and hooked ; the sides much compi-essed, and the
gonys long and slightly ascending; the nostrils lateral and partly exposed;
the wings moderate and rounded ; the tail lengthened and graduated; the
tarsi more or less long, and covered in front with transverse scales ; the toes
more or less unequal; the claws moderate, curved, and acute.

FiGr, 138. — THE LONG BILLED RAIN CUCKOO.

{Saurotkera vetula.)

The Rain Cuckoos are found in tlie islands of the
West Indies, and in South America. They frequent
woods and hedges throughout the year, feeding on
seeds, small worms, and caterpillars ; moreover, they
are said to kill snakes, frogs, young rats, and small
birds. On the ground they move by leaps. Their

* aavpojTtiQ, sauroter, a s^nke ; So called on account of its long
tail.

cuculidj:.

339

flight is weak and sliort, extending only from hush
to bush.

The type of this sub-family, —

The Long-billed Rain Cuckoo (Saurothera vetula), is
common in St. Domingo, where, it is known by several
familiar names ; such as the " Tacco," after one of its
cries, and the "Pie," from another of its notes. It is
generally known as the " Rain-bird," because it redoubles
its noisy exclamations shortly before ram. It has like-
wise obtained the cognomen of the " Laugher," from the
resemblance of its voice to a hearty laugh as it pronounces
the syllables qua, qua, qua ! or era, era, era ! sounds
wliicli it frequently gives utterance to when flying. In
pronouncing its cry of tacco, the first syllable is loud and
full, the second an octave lower. The Tacco frequents
indifterently the cultivated lands or the broad savannas,
or it may be met with in bushes or in forests. It feeds
principally upon caterpillars and lizards, or gives chase
to young rats, snakes, frogs, or even small birds. Its
nest is composed of dry roots, moss, and leaves, and is
generally constructed in the forked branch of a tree. The
eggs are four or five in number, of a dingy white colour
spotted witli black.

)\;^^c\^' r^ ^-^r^7^^

;340

SCANSORES.

SUB-FAMILY J J I.
CoccYzix.E."' The Ground Cuckoos.

Gen. Charac. — Bill goneriilly olovatcd at its linse, with the cuhncii arehod,
and the sides much compressed to the tip, wliich is entire ; the gonys usually
long and straight; the nostrils basal, with the opening generally linear and
partly closed by a scale ; the winga moderate and more or less rounded ; the
tail long and graduated ; the tarsi lengthened, and covered with broad
scales ; the toes unequal, and armed with variously-sized claws.

Fig. 139. — the ked-headed groukd cuckoo.
(Coua riificeps.)

These birds are found botli in Central and Nortli
America, and sometimes in Europe. Tliey make
their abode in the densest woods, the borders of soli-
tary swamps, and in orchards, seeking the thickest
foliage for concealment. Their food consists of
caterpillars and insects, shell-fish, snails, and small

* kokkv'Cm, coccyzo, to cry like a cuckoo.

CUCULID^. 341

frogs ; they feed^ likewise^ on berries and fruits,
and are accused of sucking tlie eggs of other birds.
In tlieir migrations northwards they move singly,
but when returning to warmer latitudes they appear
to be gregarious, flying high in the air, and in loose
flocks.

The best-known species is —

The Carolina Cuckoo {CoccyzusAmericanus). A stranger
who visits the United States for the purpose of examining
their natural productions, and passes through the woods
in the month of May or June, will sometimes hear, as he
traverses the borders of deep, retired, high-timbered hol-
lows, an uncouth guttural sound or note, resembling the
syllables howe, kowe, koim, koive, kowe I beginning slowly,
but ending so rapidly that the notes seem to run into
each other. He will hear this frequently without being
able to discover from whence it proceeds, as the bird pro-
ducing it is both shy and solitary, always seeking the
thickest foliage for concealment. From the sound of its
note it is known in many parts by the name of the
"Cow-bird;" it is also called in Vu-ginia the "Rain-
crow," being observed to be most clamorous immediately
before ram.

This bird (unlike the European Cuckoo) builds its own
nest, hatches its own eggs, rears its own young, and in
conjugal and parental affection seems nowise behind any
of its neighbours of the grove. Early in May they begin
to pan, when obstinate battles take place among the
males. The nest is usually fixed among the horizontal
branches of an apple-tree, sometimes in a solitary thorn,
crab, or cedar, in some retired part of the woods ; it is
constr\icted with little art, and scarcely any concavity, of
small sticks and twigs, intermixed with green weeds and
blossoms of the common maple. On this almost flat bed
the eggs, usually three or four in number, are placed :
these are of an uniform greenish-blue colour, and of a
size proportionable to that of the bird. While the female
is sitting, the male is generally not far distant, and gives
the alarm by his notes when any person is approaching.
The female sits so close that you may almost reach her
with your hand, and then 2:>recipitates herself to the
ground, feigning lameness to draw you away from the

342

SCANSORES.

spot, fluttering, trailing her wings, and tumbling over,
after the manner of the Partridge, Woodcock, and many
other species. Both parents unite in providing food for
the young : this consists, for the most part, of caterpillars,
particularly such as infest apple-trees : the same insects
constitute the chief part of their own sustenance. They
are accused, and with some justice, of sucking the eggs
of other birds, like the Crow, the Blue Jay, and other
pillagers. They also occasionally eat various kinds of
berries ; but from the circumstance of destroying such
numbers of very noxious larvae they prove themselves
the friends of the farmer, and are highly deserving of his
protection. — Wilson.

The typical form is —

The Red-headed Ground Cuckoo (Coua ruficeps).

vAClO^

^>^^^e. ~-

CUCULID.E.

343

SUB-FAMILY IV.
Crotophagix.e.* The Anls or Tick-eaters.

Gen. Charac. — Bill more or less lengthened, with tbe euhnen arched, and the
sides much compressed ; the nostrils basal, lateral, and pierced in the sub-
stance of the bill ; the wings short and rounded ; the tail lengthened, broad,
and graduated ; the tarsi long, and covered with broad transverse scales ;
the toes long, placed two and two, and the two outer ones the longest ; the
claws short and curted.

Fig. 140. — THE GREATER TICK-EATEE.

{Crotophaga major.)

These birds inhabit the islands of the West Indies
and the tropical parts of South America, preferring
places under cultivation, and more especially land in
the neighbourhood of clear pastures or low shrub-
beries and swamps. They easily make their way
among the thickest foliage or grass by means of
their sharp-edged bills, with which they scatter the

* K'pwTujr, croton, a tick (parasite) ; (pc'tyoj, phago, to eat.

344 SCANSORES.

herbage on eacli side in tlieir searcli after grass-
hoppers and other insects. They have been seen on
the dead carcase of a sheep, but whether attracted
by the flesh or by the larvae of insects is uncertain.
In the daytime they have been noticed in flocks of
twenty or thirty individuals, about small rivulets,
seeking for tadpoles, which they greedily devour.
At other times they may be seen flying from shrub
to shrub, uttering their peculiar note. Their nest
is built in the fork of a tree, or in a bush covered
with thick mistletoe ; it is rudely • constructed of
coarse materials, chiefly small sticks with the pliable
portion placed inside, and totally destitute of any
soft lining. The eggs are from five to seven or more
in number. The young evince much activity in.
hopping from branch to branch : long before they
are able to fly, they leave their nests, and may
frequently be seen perched on the top of a shrub
or thicket of vines, in company with a congregation
of adult birds ; and when the parents escape from
an intruder by taking flight, the young, by long
and rapid leaps, reach the ground and run off with
great quickness.

These birds live chiefly upon ticks and other
small vermin, and may frequently be seen jumping
about cows and oxen in the fields ; nay, they are
often observed to fly upon their backs, and the
cattle will even lie down for them if much troubled
with ticks ; but if the beast be heedless, they hop
once or twice round it, looking it very earnestly in
the face every time they pass, as if they seemed to
know that it was only requisite to be seen to be
indulged. They are very noisy birds, and one of the
commonest sorts in all the pastures of Jamaica. Their
flight is low and short. — (Brown, Hist. Jamaica.)

The type of this sub-family is —

The Greater Tick-eater (Crotopliaga jnajo?-).

CUCULIDiE.

345

CUCULIN^.

SUB-FAMILY V.

The Cuckoos proper.

Gen, Chabac. — Bill broad, and rather depressed at the base ; the culmen
curved, and the sides compressed to the tip, which is entire or slightly emar-
ginated ; the nostrils basal and membranous, with the opening exposed ; the
wings long and generally pointed ; the tail long and usually graduated ; the
tarsi short, partly clothed with feathers, and partly covered with broad
scales.

Fig. 141. — the commojt cuckoo.
{Cuculus canorus.)

These birds are peculiar to tlie warmer portions
of tlie Old World. They are migratory and of soli-
tary habits^ frequenting woody places and gardens
in quest of tlieir subsistence ; and generally perch in
bushes, or on the lower branches of trees, %ing occa-
sionally from one to another at short distances. Their
food consists principally of caterpillars, which they

346 SCANSORES.

kill by pressing them \\atli their bill before swallow-
ing them, usually cutting off the hinder end of the
insect, and by repeated jerks freeing it from extra-
neous matter ; they sometimes feed on perfect lepi-
dopterous insects. Their note is loud, and uttered
in a lengthened and melancholy manner, especially
early in the morning and at the decline of day,
sometimes even during the night. It is remarkable
that the females of our common species do not form
any nest, but mostly deposit their eggs in the nests
of sylvan birds, leaving to the foster-parent the
entire charge of hatching and rearing the young
Cuckoo, which, if it finds itself incommoded by the
rightful owners of the nest, casts them out to perish
on the ground ; so that the entire care of the foster-
parent is ultimately bestowed upon the intruder.

The reason of this strange proceeding seems to be
that the Cuckoos produce their eggs only at inter-
vals of several days, and as their residence in tem-
perate climates is but short, the young could hardly
be brought to maturity by their own parents in time
to take their departure with them. The egg of the
Cuckoo is of very small size in comparison with the
bird ; its weight does not exceed that of a Skylark^s
egg, although the comparative size of the two birds
is as four to one. Hence the egg of the parasite is
readily introduced into the nest of its intended
foster-parent, and the latter is not alarmed, as it
might be, by the presence of an egg so large as to be
positively inconvenient. This is of some consequence,
as the birds whose nests are selected by the Cuckoo
for the reception of its eggs are all much less than
itself. The Cuckooes egg is hatched in a shorter
period than those of its foster-parent, and thus the
young Cuckoo commonly makes its appearance before
many of the eggs of the latter are hatched ; moreover,
as it has to grow rapidly, it requires to be supplied
with a much larger quantity of food than would fall
to its share if the insects and worms collected by
the old birds had to be divided among a nestful of

CUCULID.E.

347

hungry claimants. With this exceedingly selfish
object in view^ the young Cuckoo begins operations
by gently insinuating his tail under the body of one
of the young birds^ which he then^ with the assistance
of his wings, contrives to hoist upon his back. With
his load properly poised, the young Cuckoo goes
backing until he reaches the edge of the nest, when,
with a sudden jerk, he throws it out to perish. The
other birds soon follow, and he then betakes himself
to the unhatched eggs, which are disposed of in the
same way.

The type of this sub-family, —

The Common Cuckoo {Cuculus canorus), is with us only
a summer visitant ; it arrives about the beginning of
April, and during the whole of its sojourn in this country
leads a wandering life, building no nest, and attaching
itself to no particular locality. ,

348 GALLINiE.

ORDEK lY.

Gallinje.

The Gallinaceous birds are all terrestrial. They
have a short or moderately long beak, which is
vaulted above. Their body is heavy, and their wings
generally short. They all live upon grain, and are
furnished with a strong muscular gizzard ; they
delight in seeking their food upon the ground, and
in scratching among the dust. To this order belong
our game-birds and most of our poultry ; their flesh
supplies a light and wholesome meat, and their
feathers are applied to various purposes both orna-
mental and^ useful.

This order is divided by Cuvier into two sections —
The Gallin^e properly so called, and the Co-

LUMB^.*

SECTION I.
Galling properly so called.

Gen. Chabac. — Tarsi lengthened, robust, and sometimes armed with a spur or
spurs ; the toes more or less lengthened, but always connected at their base
by a membrane, the hind toe more or less developed, and when present more
or less elevated from the ground.

The Grallinaceous birds are so named because
they present a general resemblance, both in their
structure and habits, to our common barn-door
fowls. They are usually of a moderate or rather
large size, and of a stout and somewhat heavy shape.
They have a small head, often partially or wholly
denuded of feathers, and a bill of moderate length,
of which the upper mandible is distinctly arched,
and overhangs the lower both at the tip and along

* See " Animal Creation," page 443.

GALLIN.E. 349

tlie margins. As they are all essentially terrestrial
in their habits^ their legs are always strong and well-
developed. The tarsi are stout^ and very commonly
armed with a spur^ or even with two or more such
weapons, which are especially developed in the
males. The toes are three in front and one behind,
the latter being usually small and slightly elevated
on the back of the tarsus, but sometimes more elon-
gated, and then placed upon the same level as the
other toes_, so as to be efficient in grasping. The
anterior toes are not very long, but stout, and often
united by webs at their base ; they are armed with
strong and rather blunt nails, which are of great use
in scratching up the ground in search of food, —
a habit common to most of the species, from which,
indeed, many ornithologists give them the name of
Rasores or Scrapers. The feathers of the legs are
continued down to the articulation of the tarsus_, and
sometimes extend beyond this point, even to the
extremities of the toes. The wings are generally
short and weak in comparison with the weight of
the body, so that they fly heavily, and only to short
distances. Their plumage is firm, and often adorned
with brilliant colours ; and parts of it, especially in
the males, are frequently developed to an extra-
ordinary extent, sometimes giving them a grotesque
appearance. The feathers are distinguished by the
great development of the accessory plumules spring-
ing from the base of the stem, at its junction with
the quill.

The Gallinaceous birds are spread over all parts
of the world, but the finest species are inhabitants
of the warm regions. Their food consists of fruits,
seeds, herbage, insects, and worms. They are gene-
rally polygamous, each male collecting around him
a seraglio as numerous as he can keep together. In
keeping off the attentions of intrusive rivals, he is
engaged in almost incessant combats. The females
lay their eggs, which are generally numerous, upon
the ground in some sheltered situation. The young

E

350 GALLIN.?-:.

are usually able to run as soon as tliey leave the egg,
but at niglit, or on the approach of danger^ they
shelter tlunnselves under the wing of their mother.

The Clallinie may be generally described as being
that order more especially set apart by their
(ireat Creator for the service of man. Hence they
are more easily domesticated than any other birds;
their flesh is the most palatable, and their fecundity
the greatest. They live almost entirely on the
ground, which consequently affords them their chief
nourishment in the seeds and grains of different
plants. Their flesh and their eggs are universally
wholesome and very nutritious, while their feathers
are employed for a variety of uses. They are pecu-
liarly attentive to their offspring ; and that the
increase of the different races should keep pace with
the wants of man, they are much more prolific than
ordinary birds. They are social, live in societies,
and are polygamous. They prefer escaping from
danger by running, and only take to flight when
compelled by necessity. They are fond of rolling
in the dust ; some nestle on the ground and live
only on plains, whilst others reside in forests aitd
make their nests onlv in trees. '

CRACID.E. 851

FAMILY I.

Cracid.e. 21ie Curassous.

Gen. Charac. — Bill moderate, of various forms, with the culmen more or less
arched to the tip ; the nostrils basal, lateral, and exposed; the winces short
and much rounded ; the tail lengthened and very broad ; the tarsi length-
ened and robust, with the toes lengthened and more or less slender, the
hind toe long, and jjlaced on the same plane with the others.

The first family of tlie Gallinas includes a small
number of species peculiar to Soutli America^ and
known under tlie names of Guans and Curassows.
These birds reside in the luxuriant forests of tropical
America ; they live chiefly on the ground, where
they pick up the seeds and insects which constitute
a great portion of their food. Their powers of flight
are rather limited, but they rise freely into the trees,
upon the branches of which they often roost and
breed.

352

GALLINiE.

SUB-FAMILY I.

PENELOPIX.E.

The G

uans.

Gen. Charac. — Bill moderate, weak, slender, longer than high, with the
culmen at the base straight, and then vaulted to the tip ; the nostrils large,
covered with a membrane, and the opening large, anterior, and ovate ; the
sides of the head and throat more or less naked.

Fig. 142.— lord derby's guan.
( Oreophasis Derhiduus.)

These birds are only found in the warm parts of
South America. They are generally seen in forests
on trees^ near the tops of which they reside during
the heat of the day^ but in the cool of the morning
and evening they are busily engaged in searching
for fruits and insects. Their flight is heavy, and
performed with difficulty, owing to the shortness of
their wings. They build their nests on the summits
of trees : the female lays from two to five eggs.

CEACID.E.

353

Their note resembles the syllable jn uttered in a
sharp tone, and so loud, that when numbers are col-
lected near the same spot, thej make the woods
resound with their clamorous cries.

The type of this sub -family is —

Lord Derby's Guan {Oreophasis Derhianus).

Cracin.e.

gallin.t:.

SUn-FAJULY J I.

The Curassoics prop fir.

Gkn. Charac. — Bill more or less long, and generally elevated at the base, the
culmen curved and the sides compressed to the tip, which is obtuse ; the
nostrils lateral and large, with the opening partly dosed by a membrane
crescent- shaped or rounded.

,f

h ^

Fig. 143. — the crested curassow.
{Crux cristutH.-<.)

Tlie Curassows are large fowls resembling Turkey s^
but having a ricli plumage of glossy blacky and bright
]'ed beaks. Unlike all other Gallinaceous birds, they
reside habitually in the crowns of the lofty forest-
trees, where the males with their numerous partners
move about hidden in the foliage. These flocks,
indeed, only betray their presence by uttering, now
and then, a long-drawn whistling note resembling a
sigh. Five distinct species of these magnificent
birds inhabit the forests of the Amazon, where they

CRACID.E. o55

are mucli souglit after by the natives, both as food
and as pet animals. Like the rest of the order, they
subsist indiscriminately upon worms, insects, fruits,
and the seeds of plants. Their nests are built on
trees, and formed of sticks interlaced with stalks of
herbaceous plants, and lined with leaves. The eggs
are five or six in number.

The Common Curassow {Crax Alector) is nearly as large
as a Turkey, iiieasuriug about three feet in its total height.
Its plumage is of a shining black, exhibiting purple and
green tints according to the direction in which the light
falls upon the feathers. The bill is stout and black, but
the l)asal part of l)oth mandibles is occupied by a large
yellow cere, and the eyes are surrounded by a naked skin
of the same colour. These birds, which are also called
" Hoccos," are found in great flocks in the forests of
ti'opical America. They exhibit very little fear of man,
but when in the vicinity of human habitations they
become more cautious, and are seldom seen more than
two or three together. They are easily domesticated,
and then become very familiar, recognizing those who
feed them, and even pulling at their clothes when they
thiuk themselves neglected. This bii-d has bred freely in
Holland ; it lays its eggs on the ground, and the young
run as soon as thev are hatched.

356 GALLIN.E.

FAMILY II.

Megapodid.e."' TJte Megcqoodes.

Gen. Charac. — Bill moro or less robust, with the apical portion vaulted, and
the tip rather obtuse ; the wings moderate and much rounded ; the tarsi
long, robust, and usually covered with large scales; the toes lengthened,
strong, and covered above with strong scales, the hind toe long and entirely
resting on the ground ; the claws long, robust, and slightly curved.

Tlie birds of this family are all inhabitants of tlie
islands of the Eastern Archipelago and Australia.
In their general conformation they have considerable
relationship with the Cracid^e^ especially in the
position of the hind toe, which is placed on the
same level as the anterior ones ; so that, in walking,
its whole lower surftice is applied to the ground.

The habits of these birds are most singular. They
deposit their eggs in a heap of sand, or an accumu-
lation of dead leaves, and trust to the heat of the
sun, assisted in the latter case by the warmth pro-
duced by the decay of vegetable matter, to maintain
the temperature necessary for the maturation of the
young. The eggs are of enormous size, those of
the common Megapode exceeding in bulk the eggs
of the Swan. The eggs of the Talegalla are smooth
and white, about the size of those of the Pelican.
Those of Leipoa and Megapodius are covered with
a sort of epidermis, or sandy-coloured chalky layer,
which is readily removed from the true shell beneath.
With respect to the size of these eggs, the intent is
evident ; they are destined to imprison and afford
food to the young chick, till it has grown to a com-
paratively large size. The young bird possesses
great strength, and when it breaks the strong shell,
it emerges completely clad, and works its way
through the substance of the mound in which the
egg was buried.

This family consists of the Talegallas or Brush
Turkeys, and the Mound-birds.

* [Xfyag, megas great ; ttovq, irndog, pous, podos, a foot ; Great-
foot.

MEGAPODIDJ).

357

SUB-FAMILY I.

Talegallix^.

TJie Talegallas.

Gen. Chabac. — Bill moderate and robust, ynth. the eulmen elevated at the
base and curved towards the tip, which is obtuse, the sides compressed, the
lateral margins curved, and the gonys moderate and slightly ascending.

^-.^^^'^->^f^l^'^^^^).

Fig. 144.— the kbd-footed talegalla.

(Megaeejilialou rxjipes. )

These birds are found in tlie dense brushes,
scrubby gullies, and primeval forests of Australia
and New Gruinea, where they are met with in small
flocks on the ground ; they are shy and fearful, and
when disturbed endeavour to escape by running
into the thick " brush/ ^ or by flying on to the
branches of trees, and then ascending to the top,
which they gain by leaping from boug-h to bough;
and having attained the summit, sometimes fly off
R 3

•358 gallin.t:.

to a new locality in tlie underwood. Durino' the
mid-day sun they generally seek the shady branches
of trees for shelter from the heat, often uttering a
low clucking noise. They also dust themselves on
the ground, after the manner of other Gallinaceous
birds. Their food consists of seeds, berries, and
insects. The Australian species forms a remarkable
heap of decayed vegetables in a retired and shady
place. The vegetables are collected by their feet,
until they have formed a heap of sufficient size, by
completely destroying the plants growing in the
neighbourhood. After a certain time has been
allowed for the vegetables thus accumulated to en-
gender some degree of heat, several female birds
deposit their eggs in the mound at a little distance
from each other, and cover them to a depth of three
feet. They are placed perfectly straight, with the
large end upwards, and are thus left until they are
hatched by the artificial heat of this remarkable
hotbed. The young birds force their way out of the
mound, and at the moment of their escape, they are
completely clothed with feathers. The old birds
are said to frequent the vicinity of the nest at the
time when the young may be expected to appear,
and frequently to uncover the egg's and cover them
up again. This has been confirmed by the breeding
of a pair in the London Zoological Grardens ; the
male (not the female) being' assiduous in attending
to the eggs and assisting the young birds to make
their escape.

The type of this sub -family is —

The Wattled Talegallus {Talegallus Lathami).

MEGAP0D1D.E.

359

SUB-FAMILY 11.
Megapodix.e. The Mound-bird^.

Gen. Charac— Bill moderate and rather weakened, with the Ijasal portion of
the culraen depressed, and the apical part rather strong and slightly vaulted,
the sides compressed, and the gonys curved upwards or slightly ascending.

Fig. 145.— the moundbikd.

(3ff(/apo(liuis.)

Tlie birds belonging to tlie typical genns (Mega-
jxjdius) are found in all tbe islands of tlie Eastern
Arcliipelago of Asia and the nor tli- we stern parts of
Australia. They are exclusively met with in pairs^
in thick woods in the immediate neighbourhood of
the sea ; and if disturbed, very quickly hide amongst
the brushwood. They seek their food, which con-
sists of fibrous roots, seeds, berries, and insects, on
the ground.

Some species hide their eggs, to the number of a

360

GALLIN.E.

hundred or more, in holes, which they excavate to the
depth of two or three feet, on the sea-shore. Others
deposit their eggs in immense conical mounds, com-
posed of sand and shells, with a large mixture of
black soil and vegetable matter, the base generally
resting on the sandy beach within a few feet of high
water-mark. Some of these mounds measure from
twenty to sixty feet in circumference, and from five to
fifteen in height. The female lays her eggs in the
night, at intervals of several days, in perpendicular
holes dug near the middle of the mound, to the depth
of several feet. When she has deposited one, she col-
lects a quantity of sand in the hole, until the cavity is
filled up. The young are supposed by some to effect
their escape from the mound unaided, while, on the
other hand, it has been asserted that the parent birds,
knowing when the young are ready to emerge from
their confinement, scratch down and release them.

PHASIANIDiE.' 361

FAMILY III.

Phasianid.e. The Pheasants.

Gen. Chaeac— Bill moderate, with the culmen arched to the tip, which over-
hangs that of the lower mandible, and the sides compressed ; the wings
moderate and much rounded ; the tail more or less lengthened and broad ;
the tarsi moderate, usuallj^ armed with a spur or spurs ; the toes moderate,
the anterior toes united at their base by a membrane, the hind toe short
and elevated.

The birds of this family, some of which are among
the most elegant and splendid of their class, are
nearly all inhabitants of the Eastern hemisphere,
only two species being found in America ; and even
in the Old World their distribution is almost exclu-
sively restricted to the warmer parts of the Asiatic
continent and its dependent islands. They may all
be classed under the following sub-families : — the
Peacocks, the true Pheasants, the Jungle-fowls, the
Turkej^s, and the Monauls.

362

GALLIN.^].

SUB-FAMILY I.
Pavonin.e. TJie Peacocks.

Gen. Charac— Tail and its coverts much developed and depressed.

Fig. Its.— the common peacock.
{Paco cristutus.)

Tliese magnificent birds inhabit various parts of
India, Thibet, and some of tlie islands in tlie Indian
Ocean. They abound most in the woody districts in
the low jungles, but are met with even in gardens,
in which they seek their food. The severe cold of

PHASIANIDJi]. 363

tlie mountainous parts of Nortliern India does not
hurt tliem. The male is three years old before he
Mttains his full plumage. Their nest is formed
amongst the thickest shrubs^ or on high garden
walls or roofs. When the young are bred in an
elevated situation, they are said to be carried down
to the ground by the parent on her back.

The type of the race, —

The Common Peacock {Pavo cristatus), is perhaps
adorned with a more gorgeous plumage than any other
bird. Nearly all his feathers exhibit more or less metallic
histre ; his head is crowned with an elegant tuft of slender
stems, each supporting at its extremity a small brilliant
palette ; his neck. and breast are of the deepest metallic
blue, with surface tints of golden green ; and his tail-
coverts, enormously elongated, form a most magnihcent
train, adorned with hundreds of splendid eye-like spots.
His general form also is exceedingly elegant ; and when
he elevates and spreads his gorgeous train to the sun,
displaying it in every way, as if conscious of the admira-
tion he is excitmg, the beholder is constrained to admit
that there is no creature upon which Nature has lavished
her powers of adornment with a more unsparing hand.
The voice of the Peacock is exceedingly harsh and dis-
cordant, closely resembling the word paon, which is its
French name. The colours of the female, or Peahen, are
plain and unobtrusive, and in her the train is wanting.
The introduction of this bird into Europe is ascribed to
Alexander the Great, but the date at which it was first
brought to this country is unknown. Peacocks formed
a favourite dish amongst the Romans, and also found a
place in the feasts of the middle ages, when they were
served up with great pomp.

364

GALLING.

SUB-FAMILY II.
Phasianix.e. The True Pheasants.

Gen. Charac— Tail more or less lengthened, greatly cuneated, and composed
of narrow and cuneated feathers.

Fig. 117. — the common pheasant.
(FhasiuKus Colchieus.)

The native countries of these birds are tlie moun-
tainous districts of Asia, extending even to Japan,
but some of the species have become naturalized in
the temperate parts of Europe. They are found

PHAS1ANID.E. 865

lying concealed during tlie day in tlie jungles^ covers,
and long grass, living in divided societies of different
sex. Towards tlie spring they separate in families,
consisting of a male and several females ; and the
party generally takes possession of a certain locality,
from wliicli the commander is very particular in
driving away all male intruders. When suddenly
disturbed, they endeavour to escape by using their
legs rather than their wings. Their flight is rapid
and noisy when first started, but sustained only
for a short distance. Various kinds of grain and
insects form their principal food : these are usually
sought for at sunset. They also seek for bulbous
roots, which are obtained by means of their bill and
feet. Their eggs are deposited on long grass,
without any kind of nest, and are about ten in
number.

The typical species, —

The Common Pheasant {Phasiamis Colchicus), although
abundant in most parts of Britain, is not a native of this
country, but has been introduced here, and into the
southern parts of Europe generally, from the south-west
of the Asiatic continent. The particular district from
which the progenitors of the Pheasants now inhabiting
Europe were derived, is supposed to have been the banks
of the river Phasis, in the ancient kingdom of Colchis,
on the eastern shore of the Black Sea, and the bird is
still abundant in a wild state in the Caucasian provinces.
Its scientific name, Fhasianus Colchicus, is derived from
the river and kingdom above mentioned.

The favourite resort of the Pheasant is thick underwood
abounding in brambles and long grass ; and here it lies
concealed during the day, its time for feeding in the
adjoining fields being at dawn and at sunset. In its
progress to its feeding-ground it always runs, and on this
account is very easily taken by wire snares set in the nar-
row paths that it makes through the long grass which it
constantly frequents. Its habit of roosting upon trees is,
however, still more fatal, since, being an object of con-
siderable size, readily distinguished by its long tail, and
iiot easily frightened from its perch, it offers a sure mark

366 GALLlN.f:.

during moonlight niglits to the gun of the poacher. Tlie
roosting-phice of the male bird is very (easily discovered,
for he invariably "chuckles" when he first "trees," or
goes to perch; and the female usually utters a faint chirp
on the same occasion. During summer and the period of
moulting the Pheasant rarely })erclies, hut retires for the
night to the longest grass, or other thick cover, and does
not begin to " mount" again until to waixls the end of Sep-
tember or the beginning of October, having at that pciriod
renewed its ])lumage. Where pheasants are numerous,
the males are in general found associated during the
winter, sej)arate from the females ; and it is not until
about the end of March that they allow the approach
of the latter without signs of displeasure, or at least
of indifference. At the above-mentioned time, however,
the male bird assumes an altered appearance ; the scarlet
of his cheeks, and around his eyes, acquires additional
dejjth of colour, and he walks with a more measured step,
with his wings let down, and his tail carried in a more
erect jjosition. Being polygamous, he now takes posses-
sion of a certain " beat," from whence he drives every
male intruder, and commences his " crowing," attended
with a i)eculiar clap])ing of his wings as a note of invita-
tion to the other sex as well as of defiance to his own.
The female makes a very iuartificialnest upon the ground,
in long grass or thick underwood, and not unfrequently
in fields of clover ; she lays from ten to fourteen eggs of a
clear oil -green colour. The young are hatched du)ing
the months of June or July, and continue with the hen
until they begin to moult and assume the adult plumage ;
after this period the young males are only to be distin-
guished from the older birds by the comparative shortness
and bluntness of the tarsal s])ur.

PHAS1ANID.E.

367

Gallin.e.

SUB-FAMILY III.

Tlie Jnngle-Foids.

Gex. Chahac —Bill moderate, with the apical half vaulted and arched to the
tip, which is obtuse ; the nostrils placed in a large membranous groove,
with the opening large, nearly semicircular, and protected by a scale ; the
wings moderate, concave, much rounded, with the secondaries the length of
the quills, ample and broad ; the tail compressed, and genei ally arched ; the
tarsi as long as, or longer than, the middle toe, robust, and armed with a
spur ; the toes long, and the front ones united at their base by a membrane.

Fig. 148. — hoksefield's ju>*gle.fowl.
{Euplocomus Horsefieldli.)

These birds are found in tlie forests of India and
tlie neiglibouring islands. Tliey frequent tlie close
brushwoods that cover the precipitous and rugged
gorges of the mountains^ but some species prefer
level ground. They are generally seen in coveys of
eight or ten individuals. When alarmed, they do not
take wing, but endeavour to hide themselves among

•368 GALLIN.E.

the covers^ running witli great rapidity. Their note
is a subdued melancholy chuck. Their food consists
of seeds, wild berries, roots, insects, &c.

A beautiful species, —

The Javan Fowl {Gallus Banklva), is generally believed
to be the original stock of our domestic poultiy. It closely
resembles in plumage some of the dunghill cocks of this
country, although it is considerably less in size. This bird
appears to have been domesticated m the Ea,st at a very
early period, and must have been introduced into Europe
in very ancient times. It was well known to the Greeks
and Romans, who, like our own people at a very recent
period, and many eastern nations at the present day, de-
lighted in the cruel spectacle of a cock-fight. During the
day they generally frequent tlie outskirts of forests and
thick jungles, but on the least alarm conceal themselves
in the thickest coverts. Their food consists of seeds,
fruits, and the larva? of insects ; the females construct a
rude nest on the ground composed of grass.

The type of this sul)-family is —

Horsefield's Jungle-Fowl {Eujylocomus Horsefieldii).

PHASIAXID.E.

369

SUB-FAMILY IV.
Meleagrix.e. The Turkeys.

Gen. Charac. — Tail more or less short and pendent; the head and neck
denuded of plumes, or only covered with scattered hairs or carunculated ;
the base of the lower mandible sometimes wattled.

Fig. 1-49. THE COM.MOX TVEEEY.

{Meleagris Galli-pavo.)

The wandering habits of these birds occasion them
to be found in the forests^ prairies^ and open tracts of
various parts of the northern continent of America.
The males live in small societies of ten to a hundred^

370 GALLIN.E.

and seek their food apart from the females, who are
occupied in feeding' their young* and concealing them
from the attacks of the other sex ; but should the
parties meet in some ground where their favourite
food is ver}^ abundant, they intermix and partake of
the repast. Turkeys are found in a wild state
throughout North America, from Canada to the
Isthmus of Panama ; and far from being improved
by the care of man, they have become remarkably
degenerated in a state of domesticity. The wild
bird when at liberty will weigh from twenty to sixty
pounds, and when standing upright will measure at
least three feet in height. Formerly these birds
were common in Canada and in the central parts of
the United States, but they have gradually fallen
back before the advance of cultivation, although they
seem to yield their country to the husbandman only
inch by inch. Still, it is not difficult to predict that
the time of their complete extirpation is not remote.
The wild Turkeys live for the most part in the
forests, where they feed upon fruits. During the
summer time they associate in little bands, but in
the winter unite to form flocks, which issue from
their retreat and approach inhabited districts. This
season is called by the North American Indians the
Turkey month, and during its continuance great
numbers are killed, and preserved in a frozen state
to be transported to the European settlements. It
is only in the remote parts of the country that these
birds can be said to be met with in abundance.
They are very wild ; and although much larger than
the domesticated race, are not easily met with except
by accident, in their chosen retreats ; for, on the
slightest alarm, they at once hide themselves among
the long grass and impenetrable brushwood, which
is likewise their usual defence against birds of prey.
Moreover, they are naturally in the habit of acting
as guardians to each other ; the first who perceives
the approach of a stranger, even at a distance, utters
a cry of alarm, and in an instant they vanish among

PHASIANID.?^. 371

the herbage. The sportsman has no chance of
getting within reach of them during the day, at
least without the assistance of a dog well trained for
the purpose ; and even then he must fire very close,
so as to kill them on the spot; for if they are only
wounded, they run so quickly with a sort of half-
flight, that the fleetest Indian cannot overtake them .
About sunset, however, they may be assailed with
better success, as at that period of the day they
betray the place of their retreat by incessant
" gobblings,^'' whereby they collect their scattered
flocks. When they have all got together, they
make their way in perfect silence to their accustomed"
roosting-places, where they perch themselves close
together lipon the large trees, particularly upon
withered boughs or branches stripped of their
leaves. When thus perched, so secure do they
think themselves, that they are readily approached ;
indeed, neither the sight of a man nor the report of
a gun seems to cause the slightest feeling of alarm.
They will even see their companions fall from their
side, killed by an arrow or still more murderous
bullet, without stirring from their place. Their only
indication of concern is a sort of low murmur, more
indicative of surprise than fear ; indeed, they remain
so stupidly immoveable, that under these circum-
stances they may all be killed one after the other,
however numerous. At break of day, the Wild
Turkeys make the woods echo with their gobblings,
as they call to each other from tree to tree ; but as
the sun rises they come down from their perch, and
the males, in the breeding season, proceed to display
their plumage to the other sex, when fierce battles
often take place.

The most beautiful species of this sub-family, —
The Ocellated Turkey {Jleleagris ocellafus), is a native
of Honduras, where it does not seem to be very abundant.
It is about the size of the common Turkey, but far more
splendid in its tints. The typical form is —
The Common Turkey (Mekagris Galli-pavo).

372

GALLlX.i:.

SUB-FAMILY V.

LOPHOPHORINiE. '

The Monmds.

Gen. Chakac. — Bill moderate, broad at the base, and the tip of the upper
mandible projecting over the lower ; the nostrils partly exposed and partly
covered with feathers and a membranous shield ; the wings moderate; the
tail ample; the tarsi short, strong, and covered with divided shields; the
toes lensthened, and the lateral ones united with the middle one ; the claws
short and curved ; lores clothed with small feathers.

Fig. 150. — THE MONAUL, OE IMPEYAN PHEASANT.

(LopJiophorus Impei/anus.)

The single species constituting this sub-family is
abundant in the inner margins of the Himalaya
Mountains. When disturbed^ these birds take wing

* \6(pog, lophos, crest; (pipw, pliero, to carry ; Crest-bearer.

PHASIANIDtE.

373

rapidly, uttering a loud and musical note, which,
they repeat at short intervals till they again alight.
They are very fond of perching on some bare rock
or stone, and from thence siu*veying the ground
around them. In the morning and evening, while
feeding, it is difficult to get at them, as they are
very wary ; but during the heat of the day they are
found lazily reposing among the brushwood covers,
and unwilling to rise. It is known when they are
in any particular locality by the holes they make in
the ground in search of food, which consists of
bulbous roots and insects. The males are three
years in attaining their showy plumage : when first
fledged they are scarcely distinguishable from the
females.

The only species, —

The Monaul, or Impeyan Pheasant (Lophophorus Im-
peyanus)^ is a splendid Indian bird, an inhabitant of the
mountams of Nepaul and the Himalayas.

^'^^

374 GALLTN/E.

FAMILY IV.

Tetraonid.e. The Grouse.

Gen. Chakac. — Bill more or less long, broad at the base, and the sides com-
pressed, with the culmen arched to the tip, which is obtuse ; the nostrils
basal, lateral, sometimes covered with feathers, or protected with a naked
hard scale ; the wings short and rounded ; the tail more or less lengthened
and rounded ; the tarsi strong, sometimes clothed with plumes, or naked
and scutellated ; the hind toe moderate and elevated.

The birds of this family are generally of smaller
size tliaii those of the preceding group, and far less
striking, either for the elegance of their form or the
brilliancy of their colour : they are very generally
distributed over the surface of the globe, but the
typical genera of the family inhabit the forests and
heaths of mountainous countries . Their food consists
of fruits, seeds, and the young shoots of plants and
trees, and occasionally of worms and insects. Some
of them are polygamous, but many pair ; and, in the
latter case at least, both the males and females assist
in rearing their young.

In this family are arranged the Partridges, the
Francolins, the Bush-Quails, the American Par-
tridges, the Grouse proper, and the Sand Grouse.

TETRAOXID.E.

SUB-FAMILY I.

Perdicix.e.

The Partridyes.

Gen. Charac. — Margin of the bill entire, and the nostrils protected l)y a naked
hard scale ; the tarsi long, naked, covered in front with divided scales, and
sometimes armed with spurs or blunt tubercles.

WP\ s "^^

-%>

Fig. 151.— the red-legged partridge.
{Perdix rufu.)

The true Partridges are peculiar to tlie temperate
climates of the Old Worlds remaining sedentary in
some places, and in others migrating according* t(j
the season. Some species frequent cultivated lands,
while others are found in forests, where they may
occasionally be seen perched on the branches of
trees. They search the ground during the early
portion of the morning-, and again before the sun
disappears, for their food, which consists of grain,
bulbous roots, and insects.

Partridges are^ fortunately for the sportsman, very
s 2

3/6 GALLINif].

prolific, tlieir eggs being from twelve to twenty in
number. The nest is merely a hole scratclied in the
dry mould, generally under the shelter of some bush
or tuft of grass : the incubation lasts three weeks.
The female sits exceedingly close on her nest during
this period, especially towards the end of it, and
offers a bold resistance to any birds seeking to
plunder her ; but being quietly approached, both
she and her eggs may be gently removed, and
she will hatch her brood in confinement, departing
with them to the fields as soon as the young are
able to accompany her. The male Partridge takes
no part in the labour of incubation, but, like all
birds that pair, he is attentive to his mate, assists
her in the defence of the brood, and uses many arts
to lure visitors from the nest. The young ones
generally leave the nest on the same day that they
break the shell, for their legs are at that time as
strong, in proportion to the weight of their bodies,
as those of mature birds, although the wings are
scarcely developed.

The young feed on small insects, larvas, and the
eggs of insects : the old ones lead them to the places
where these are deposited, and scrape away the
mould. An ant-hill in a friable soil is a fat pasture,
and multitudes of the ants and larvae are eaten by
young partridges.

TETRAONID.E.

377

SUB-FAMILY 11.

FRA^x"OLINI^^E.

The Fraiicolit

:x^''

Fig. 152 —the common fkancolin.
(FrancoUnus viilgurh.)

The Francolins are found in tlie warmer parts of
tlie Old World, especially on tlie continent of Africa.
Some species inhabit level plains, while others live
in forests, perching sometimes on trees : if alarmed,
they hide in the brushwood in the thickest part of
the jungle, not venturing out again till all danger
has gone by. If no hiding-place is near, they
endeavour to escape by running, and have only
recourse to their wings when they have no other
means of escape. In their general habits they very
much resemble the true Partridges ; they breed at
the same season, manifest the same care of their
young, and are equally prolific. They differ, how-

o/8 GALLII^.K.

ever, from Partridges, iiiasmucli as they do not
frequent cultivated grounds ; on the contrary, they
])refer the neighbourhood of woods, where they
seem to select damp localities abounding in reeds.
They live upon berries quite as much as upon grain,
and seek eagerly for worms and insects, such as
abound in marshy soil ; they likewise feed exten-
sively on small bulbous roots, which they dig from
the ground with their beaks. Moreover, they are
very fond of perching upon trees, more especially
during the night ; and their call is much more
harsh and noisy than that of the Partridge. Their
riesh is excellent ; indeed, the European species is
regarded as one of the most dainty dishes.

The typical species of this sub-family is —

The Common Francolin {Francolinus vulgaris). Unlike
its African congeners, which feed on bulbous roots, for
})vocuring which their l)eak is specially adapted, our
Euro})ean kind differs little in form and food from the
true Partridge ; it however exhibits a decided preference
for moist and humid districts, and perches on trees. In
Eiiro[)e its habitat ajjpears exclusively confined to the
southern regions, as Sicily, Malta, and the Neapolitan
territories ; but it is also found in tlie North of Africa and
over the greater portion of the Asiatic continent ; it has
also been received in collections from tlie Himalaya
mountains. Its flesh is very delicate, and much esteemed
iu India.

Tliese l)ii'ds generally re])air to trees on the a|>proacli
< )f night, and remain there till the break of day again
invites them to their feeding-places, which are commoidy
tlie banks of rivers. Among the grass which clothes
such localities these birds wander during the greater part
of the day, and when they are surprised in their retreats
they run with considerable speed ; as, unless when sharply
pressed, they generally prefer that manner of effecting
tlieir escaj^e to flying. The slightest alarm causes them
to bend their course towards the jungle, in the densest
parts of which they conceal themselves until the clanger
is past ; and on such occasions they not unfrequently
})erch upon shrubs which are fully covered with foliage.

TETRAONIDTE.

379

When feeding, particularly early in the morning, and also
occasionally towards evening, they utter their harsh and
frequent calls, and these are often VesiDonded to by others
of the species who may be scattered at a distance in the
surrounding valleys. They feed upon small builds and
insects, and also swallow a considerable quantity of
gravel— 6'mith, '' Illus. of the Zool of S. Africa:'

380

GALLIN.E,

TURNICIN^.

SUBFAMILY III.

The Bush Quails.

Gen. Chaeac. — Bill moderate, straight, and the sides compressed to the tip,
which slightly overhangs that of the lower mandible ; the nostrils lateral,
and placed in a nasal groove that reaches beyond half the length of the bill,
with the opening linear and protected by a long scale ; the wings rather
short and rounded; the tail short, and almost concealed by the dorsal
feathers ; the tarsi moderate and strong ; the toes usually three in number,
long, and free at their base, the outer toe longer than the inner.

Fig, 153.— the African bush quail.
(Tuniix Africanus )

The Busli Quails are found in Soutliern Europe,
India, Africa, Madagascar, and Australia. They
are generally met with in small parties or in pairs,
and frequent open places near rivers, or such as
are thinly covered with grasses. They usually lie
so close to the ground that it is difficult to discover
them; and when flushed they make off with a rapid
flight, but only to a short distance, flying within

TETRAONID^. 38l

two or three feet from tlie ground^ and tlien drop-
ping to tlie eartli to conceal themselves among the
herbage, or run with great swiftness until they con-
sider themselves safe from pursuit. The nest is
composed of grasses, and is placed in a hollow on
the surface of the ground, under the shelter of a
tuft of grass. The female lays four eggs.

The type of this sub-family is —

The African Bush Ctuail {Turnix Africanus). Tlie
Turnix is a small Ijird resembling the Quail both in size
and plumage, but well distinguished by the absence of a
hind toe. It is found in many parts of Sicily and Spain,
and stragglers are sometimes seen in the plains of Lan-
guedoc ; it is met with also in the ISTorth of Africa, espe-
cially among the thickets and dwarf palms of Blount
Atlas. The birds of this sub-family are inhabitants (»f
the intertropical regions of the Old World \ two species,
it is true, have been discovered in the southern parts of
Europe, but in such limited numbers as to prove satis-
factorily that the northern part of Africa is their true
habitat ; consequently, the southern parts of Spain, Italy,
and the islands of the Mediterranean, are among the
utmost limits of their range northwards. They differ
from the true Quails {Coturnix) in the total absence of
the hind toe, and in the long and slender form of their
bills. These are the most dimmutive birds of the galli-
naceous tribe, being not more than half the size of tlie
common Quail. They are polygamous, and they give a
preference to sterile lands and the confines of deserts,
over which they run with surprising cpiickness.

382

GALLIN^L

SUB-FAMILY IV.
Odontopiiorin.e.* The American Fartridcjes.

Gen. Charac. — Bill short, more or less compressed on the sides, and the eulmen
{generally elevated at the base, and arched to the tip, which is obtuse, and
prolonged over that of the lower mandible, the margin is bidentated on each
side ; the nostrils basal, and placed in a short and rounded groove, with
the opening covered by a membranous scale ; the wings moderate, concave,
and rounded ; the tail more or less long, broad, and rounded ; the tarsi
generally slender, long, and covered by divided scales; the foes long,
and the inner shorter than the outer toe; the claws modei-ate, slightly
curved, and acute.

Fig. 154. — the black-throated American partridge.
{Ortyx nigrogalaris.)

The Odontopliorin^ are found in the tropical parts
of the New Continent. They frequent the forests
or thick woods^ especially those that border upon
rivers. Then- usual food consists of grain and

* oSovg, vOov-oc, odous, odontos, a tooth ; <pip(x), pliero, to carry ;
Having the bill toothed.

TETRAONID.E. -383

insects, wliicli tliey pick up among tlie dry leaves.
All tlie members of this group are strictly American,
and by far tlie greater number of them are natives
of that portion of the continent lying between the
thirtieth degree of north latitude and the equator.
Four species are now included in the fauna of North
America, and four have been discovered in Brazil.
Some few extend their range to the larger West-
India islands, and several others inhabit the vast
mountain-range of the Andes. They form a large
and well-defined family, distinguishable from the
Partridges and Quails of the Old World by the
absence of any spur or spurlike appendage on
the tarsi, and by the toothlike processes on the
upper mandible. They are pugnacious in their
disposition, semi-arboreal in theii' habits, and de-
posit their eggs in a depression of the ground,
or in a very inartificial nest. Their food consists
of seeds, berries, fruits, and the tender leaves
of grass, and other vegetables. Their flesh is
white, tender, and well-flavoured. In the morning
and evening twilight they perch on a low branch
very near each other, when the males frequently
give utterance to their cries, which reverberate
through the forest to a great distance. If alarmed
while on the ground, they usually hasten to a low
branch, along which they run, and, crouching down,
conceal themselves among the foliage. The nest is
formed on the ground, in a thicket, or beneath a log.
The female lays from eight to fifteen eggs.

The type of the race is —

The Black-throated American Partridge ((9r^?/x nigro-
gularis).

384

GALLINJi].

SUB-FAMILY V.
Tetraonin^. The Grouse proper.

Gen. Charac. — Bill short, broader than long, elevated at the base, the sides
gradually compressed to the tip ; the nostrils entirely clothed with small
feathers ; the wings moderate and rounded ; the tail ample and of various
forms ; the tarsi moderate, more or less clothed with feathers ; the toes
long, and sometimes covered with feathers.

Fig. 155.— the black grouse.
(Tetrao Tetrix.)

These birds are found in tlie northern parts of
Europe and America, inhabiting the great pine and
spruce forests, especially of the higher mountains.
During the autumn and winter they live har-
moniously in flocks, till the return of spring,
when the males separate, and each chooses some
])articular spot, to which he entices a female, who

TETRAONIDiE. 385

attends entirely to the hatching of the young. They
reside principally on the ground during summer,
but in the winter they seek the trees, whereon they
chiefly find their food, which consists of seeds and
berries of alpine plants and trees, and the tender
shoots of pines, firs, and birch, &c. They often
visit arable lands in the vicinity of their retreats,
and even approach the habitations of man during
winter, sharing in the food of the poultry. The
nest is composed of a few stalks arranged on the
ground in marshy places, and concealed by a tuft of
tall grass or a low bush. The female deposits from
six to ten or fifteen egg*s.

The type of this sub-family is —

The Black Grouse or Black Cock {Tetrao Tetrix), still
met with in the mountamous districts of the North of
England, and pretty abundantly in those of Scotland. It
also occurs commonly in the North, and in the mountams
of the South of Europe. The bases of the hills m heathy
and mountainous districts, which are covered with a
natural growth of birch, alder, and willow, and intersected
by morasses clothed with long coarse herbage, are situa-
tions best suited to the habits of these birds, as are also
the deep and wooded glens so frequently occurring in such
extensive w^astes.

Duriag the months of autumn and winter the males
associate and live in flocks, but separate in March or
April, and each individual choo>;es some particular station
from which he drives all intruders, and for the possession
of which, w^ien the birds are numerous, desperate con-
flicts often take place. At this station he posts himself
early every morning and evening during the pairing
season, repeating his call of invitation, and displaying a
gi'eat variety of attitudes, not unlike those of a turkey-
cock, accompanied by a crowing note, and by another
similar to the noise made by whetting a scythe. At this
season his plumage exhibits the richest glosses, and the
red skin of his eyebrows assumes a superior intensity of
colour. The pairing season over, animosity ceases, and
the male birds again associate and live harmoniously

386

GALLIN.-E.

together. The female deposits lier eggs in May, from six
to ten in number, of a yellowish-grey coloiii" blotched
with reddish-brown. The nest is very artlessly con-
structed, on the ground, of a few dried stems of grass,
under shelter of a tall tuft or low bush, generally in
mai-shy jjlaces, where long and coarse grasses abound.

TETRAONID.K.

387

SUB-FAMILY VI.
Tteroclin.e. The Sand Grouse.

Gek. Charac. — Bill short, with the culmen curved to the tip, and the sides
compressed ; the wings and tail lengthened and pointed ; the tarsi longer
than the middle toe, robust, and more or less covered with feathers ; the
toes moderate and robust, the lateral toes more or less united to the middle
one, and the hind toe rudimental.

Fig. 156.— the paradoxical saxd-gkouse.
Sij rrh a pies paradoxus.)

These singular-looking birds inhabit Southern
Europe^ Africa^ and Asia^ living* in diy^ sandy
deserts^ bare or rocky plains^ or bushy and woody
grounds^ especially in the neighbourhood of low
hills. They are usually found singly or in pairs^
except when those of the desert resort to water,
which they do in flocks. When flushed, they
rise with a low chuckling call, take a short flight.

388 GALLING.

and alight ; then^ if followed, run along the ground
to a short distance, and with difficulty rise again.
Others, however, according to Dr. Smith, " fly to a
great height, and suddenly descend when they
approach the water or their feeding-grounds ; and
sometimes the descent is not commenced till they are
directly over the spot on which it is their purpose
to alight. On such occasions they are obliged to
make a semicircular or circular sweep before they
can reach the desired locality. Their food consists
of hard seeds, bulbs, and insects, mixed with fine
gravel. ^^ The female lays from two to four eggs on
the bare ground.

The best-known species, —

The Pintailed Sand Grouse {PterocUs alchata), a native
of the southern portion of Europe, the North of Africa,
and the level and arid plains of Persia, is particularly
abundant in Spain, Sicily, and through the whole of the
Levant, visiting, at uncertain seasons and in small num-
bers, the southern provinces of France. It is a bird of
migratory habits, and, like its congeners, prefers wild
and barren districts. These birds abound in the stony dis-
tricts beyond Jordan, and are there known by the name
of "Katta." Burckhardt says, "The quantity of Kattas is
beyond description ; the whole plain seemed sometimes
to rise, and far off in the air they were seen like large
moving clouds. In the mountains of Edom they are in
such numbers that two or three are often killed at a time
by a stick thrown among them by the Arab boys ; and
such is their abundance in some parts of the year, that an
ass-load may be taken at one shutting of the clasp-net."

Their flesh being black and hard, is never seen at the
tables of the Franks, bat it is nevertheless eaten by the
Turks.

This grouse lays two or three eggs at a time, placed on
the ground, without any nest ; they are as large as those
of a pigeon, and of a greenish-black : the Arabs eat them
fried in butter.

Hasselquist and Burckhardt are both of opinion that
this bird is the Quail (^Selav) of the ancient Israelites.

CHIONIDID^. 389

FAMILY Y.

Chionidid^.* The Sheath-hills.

Gen. Chaeac. — Bill moderate, the eulmen much arched to the tip, the sides
much compressed ; the nostrils basal, lateral, and protected by a bony
covering, or only partly closed by a horny membrane; the wings long and
pointed ; the tail moderate ; the tarsi short and strong ; the toes long, and
the anterior ones united at their base, the hind toe short and elevated.

This is a family containing a few species whose
characters are so curions as to liave rendered tlieir
position in tlie ornithological series somewhat doubt-
ful. They have a short and stout bill^ which is
compressed at the tip and considerably arched.
The nostrils are situated at the base of the upper
mandible, and protected by a more or less inflated
cartilaginous plate^ an appendage the use of which
is rather obscure. Like the birds of the preceding
family, they have long and pointed wings ; their
tarsi are of moderate length and thickness, naked
and reticulated quite up to the articulation, and
terminated by four toes, of which the anterior are
tolerably long, and the posterior small and slightly
elevated upon the back of the tarsus. These singular
birds are met with upon the sea-shores of Patagonia,
New Zealand, and Australia, and also upon many of
the islands of the Antarctic Sea.

* Xfoj'ioc, ohionios, snowy.

390

GALLIN.T-;.

SUB-FAMILY I.

Thinocorin.e."'

The Shore Larks.

Gen. Charac— Bill short, rather slender, broad at the base, and compressed
on the sides ; the nostrils basal, lateral, : nd exposed, with the opening
lunate and mostly closed by a horny membrane, which is covered hy short
feathers.

V\\\*

\\\V ^^ •

K^^

\ 111

\ t

\ ^ rf^iaitt.

Fig. 157.— latreille's shore-lark.
(Attagis Latreillii.)

Tlie Shore Larks inliabit Soutli Africa and South
America, spreading over at least twenty-three degrees
of latitude. They are found in the elevated valleys
of mountainous districts and inland plains, preferring
the most desolate places. They are seen in pairs,
or in small coveys of five or six, and sometimes

* 6iv, QivoQ, thin, thinos, the shore; Kopsio, coreo, to su-eep ;
sweeping over the shore.

CHIONIDID.E.

391

(luring- the winter in flocks, consisting of many
individuals. These birds frequent the same place
for a long time. When flushed, they take a rapid
and circular flight, often returning to the spot
whence they arose ; but if suddenly alarmed, they
lie close to the ground, from which they can scarcely
be distinguished. Their food consists of grass, of
seeds, of plants, and sometimes of insects. The
nest is said to be placed on the borders of lakes,
although the bird itself is an inhabitant of the desert.
The female lays from four to five eggs.

The best-known species is —

D'Orbigny's Shore Lark {Thimcorus Orhignyamis).
These birds live in small troops in the valleys between
the mountains of Chili, frequenting the most desolate
spots, and feeding upon plants, s